The Tabula Chigi quoting Alexander

“Kings have knelt before my spear, and their peoples too,
how many are the embraces of the Ocean around the earth.
I am the son of Philip, by Heracles a descendant of Zeus,
and of my mother Olympias, of the race of the Aeacids.”

This inscription is in Greek as it appears on the Tabula Chigi, in which Alexander speaks in the first person. 

This Tabula Chigi is a tablet made of antique yellow marble, 15.5 x 9 cm and 1.5 cm thick, from between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. It belongs to a series of “tabula iliaca” named after the Iliad because most of the scenes tell episodes from Homer’s book. 

[Picture from Rai Cultura, Arte]

We don’t know for whom or why these panels were created. They may have served to decorate some libraries or to disseminate a story, or they simply had a votive function. The latest opinion is that they were a kind of conversation piece for the ‘nouveaux riches’ who had no access or the skills to read literary texts. 

Another study has suggested that the Chigi iliaca were meant to be read and understood by a selected group of connoisseurs of Greek calligrams (sets of words arranged in such a way that they form a thematically related image). So far, we know twenty-two tabulae iliacae existed. Italy has the largest collection with seven tablets spread among the Capitoline Museums, the Villa Albani, the Vatican Museums in Rome, and the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. 

The Tabula Chigi was discovered in 1777 in a quarry belonging to the Chigi family. Over the years, the tablet disappeared and was known only from 19th-century illustrations. In 1928, the last member of this powerful family gave the tablet to his American wife. It was officially called lost in 2012. However, it resurfaced recently in New York and was handed over to the Italian State in the name of the last daughter of the Chigi family. It ended up in the National Roman Museum,Palazzo Massimo, in Rome.   

The tablet shows two female figures facing each other, Europa and Asia as mentioned in the inscriptions. Between them stands an altar with a relief of a cithara player, probably Apollo, flanked by two dancers, Muses or Graces. With one hand, they hold up a tondo (round relief) with various figures; and with the other hand, they hold a dish for libations and offerings. A Greek inscription fills the space between the roundel and the altar, Europa and Asia, and this is the text mentioned above. The Tabula Chigi has survived in excellent condition. 

This unique tablet has been on display during the exhibition “The instant and eternity. Between us and the ancients” together with 300 exceptional artifacts from Greek, Roman, Etruscan, Italic, medieval, modern, and contemporary civilizations. For the occasion, a section of the Baths of Diocletian, part of the National Roman Museum in Rome reopened after decades of closure. 

Roman soldiers in China

Entering China from the depression of Mongolia, the modern visitor is in for a remarkable surprise. High on top of a Corinthian column stand two bronze figures, a Chinese and a Roman soldier, greeting each other. Behind it, two rows of white columns line up in sharp contrast with the cloudless blue sky. 

A short distance away, a group of eleven, life-size Roman legionaries is immortalized in bronze. Behind it is the entrance gate to a Roman world in the style of Disneyland. The monument is a mixture of a Buddhist and a Roman temple with Ionic columns holding a pediment. A unique way to attract tourists to the Chinese frontier! What happened here? What triggered this staging? What is the truth behind this story? 

We must go back to 60 BC when Rome’s First Triumvirate was formed between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. Pompey is envious of Caesar’s successes in Gaul and recent friendship with Crassus. They were three very different men who came together to achieve their own goals. Once they agreed to their role in this new form of government, Caesar returned to Gaul, Pompey stayed in Rome, and Crassus went east.

Crassus was the richest man in Rome, but he was not a military man. Still, he sought glory on the battlefield similar to that of his co-rulers and decided to attack Asia Minor. His army was defeated by the Parthians and Crassus was killed at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC (see: Harran, better known under its Roman name Carrhae). Some 20,000 soldiers died on the battlefield and 4,000 returned to Syria. 

Yet 10,000 of his troops were taken prisoner by the Parthians (see: Who were the Parthians?) and sent to Margiana to man the frontier. In 36 BC, the Parthians forced the Roman prisoners to participate in the Battle of Zhizhi, Kazakhstan, against the Chinese. The victorious Chinese of the Western Han Dynasty were so impressed by the fighting skills of their opponents that they took them to the city of Liqian or Li-chien – maybe a transliteration of Alexandria or the Roman word Legion - in the region of Gansu in western China. 

A number of inscriptions discovered in the Kara-Kamar caves on the border between eastern Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were written in Bactrian, Greek, Arabic, and Latin. The latter one was composed of three lines and was left by the Roman soldiers of the Pannonian Legio XV Apollinaris around the 2^nd century AD (see: First contacts with China). A proof that the Romans had been there? 

It is a fact that about 50% of the population of Liqian has green and blue eyes and a Roman aquiline nose. This may be wishfully attributed to the Roman presence some 2,000 years ago. Another theory circulates that the Chinese mingled with people from Siberia. As so often, it is unclear where history and legend start or end.

[top and bottom pictures from That's Mags]

An important update on Side

These days, the main attraction of Side seems to be centered on what is called the Monumental Nymphaeum, opposite the main city gate. 

[Picture from Turkish Archaeological News]

This fountain belongs to the 2^nd century AD when Side prospered and its Roman occupants did not shy away from making a statement. The richly decorated construction was three stories high and adorned with many statues, which have been moved to the local Museum. The three niches on the lower floor above the water basin are still standing, but otherwise, the Nymphaeum has been heavily reconstructed. Originally, the water would have cascaded down through the slots in the façade, not unlike what we can see in Sagalassos (see: Sagalassos in Alexander’s campaign). 

The Roman architects built an aqueduct to supply the water for the Nymphaeum. It also fed the public baths, fountains, and cisterns, whereas the wealthiest citizens had running water and a sewer in their homes. 

The water came from the Manavgat River, whose waterfalls are another modern tourist attraction. The source of the river was in the Taurus Mountains, some 40 kilometers from the city center of Side. The renovation of the aqueduct in the early 3^rd century AD was financed by Side’s benefactor Lollianods Bryonianos and his wife Quirina Patra. Today, sections of the aqueduct are still visible in the landscape. Also in an opening in the city walls pipes and water channels made of marble, terracotta, and lead can be seen. 

[My own picture taken in 2009]

The above is proof, if needed, that it is not enough to visit a site just once. New excavations are carried out, even intermittently. I realize that my last post on Side was written ten years ago with Alexander as the focal point (see: Side didn’t put up any resistance to Alexander). It happened after my more in-depth exploration done earlier, in 2009. 

The more recent exploration and excavations focusing on the Roman aqueduct and the monumental Nymphaeum triggered the present update.

Museum of Tripoli, Libya

There are several reasons to write about the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli. It is one of those ‘must-see’ places that sadly are off the beaten track for the average tourist, especially since Gaddafi has been eliminated and the country has not regained its stability. 

I was privileged to visit this wonderful collection just before the outbreak of the Arab Spring, unaware of the quantity and high quality of artwork that awaited me. It must be said that I discovered these treasures on my first day in Libya, and, as always, I should have returned after my tour of the archaeological sites as well. 

Anyway, I took in as much as I could, fully aware that the best pieces from any excavation made their way to the museum in the country’s capital. Tripoli was no exception. 

The bulk of the collection comes from Leptis Magna, second to Rome (see: An introduction to Leptis Magna in Libya). 

The first statues I see are two magnificent Roman copies of Praxiteles’ originals from the 4th century BC. One is the Diadumenos, a young athlete who is tying the ribbon of victory around his head. The other is Apollo-Antinous, hinting at Dionysus, combining the body of Apollo with the head of Antinous, the lover of Emperor Hadrian. Both life-size marbles were recovered from the Baths of Hadrian in Leptis Magna. The arched vaults of these baths from the 2nd century AD have simply collapsed, burying and saving their precious statues in the process. 

Stealing the show is the marble Apollo playing the lyre. He is a little taller than life-size and as true to life as imaginable. Apollo’s delicate hands and fingers seem to strike the strings as he holds his instrument with his left hand and the plectrum in his right. The lyre is intact, except for the strings, and it is a unique opportunity to have a close-up look. His eyes, whose traces of paint make them alive, stare melancholically into the distance. They are a vivid reminder of all the painted statues in antiquity. Apollo’s body is truly worthy of a god. 

The elegant Muse Calliope is sitting nearby, listening carefully to his tune. More remarkable statues gather around Apollo. An unspecified sea goddess is looking up to him, and Mars is standing in a niche behind him. The slender Isis is wearing a diadem, and Venus is very similar to other copies of the famous Aphrodite of Cnidos (see: Was Alexander the Great aware of Cnidos?). Hadrian definitely had an outspoken taste for beauty! 

Another large group of statues and busts is brought together from the theater of Leptis Magna, consisting mainly of Roman emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, etc. Even Augustus' wife, Livia and granddaughter, Agrippina the Elder, are present. Upstairs, in the Mezzanine, there is a statue of Faustina, the wife of Marcus Aurelius. 

Inside the theater of Leptis Magna stood a small temple dedicated to Ceres-Augusta, goddess of the harvest – our word for cereal derives from the name Ceres. A seated statue of this goddess also found its way to the museum. 

The goddess Cybele, with the many breasts (or whatever they represent) as worshiped in Ephesos, was unearthed in the sanctuary of the amphitheater. A Roman copy of a Greek original Diana/ Artemis, as displayed at the Louvre in Paris and the Archaeological Museum of Antalya, is also exhibited. 

The Ancient Forum of Leptis Magna yielded a rather damaged Dionysus with satyr and panther, and a headless Lady Fortuna wearing a beautifully draped tunic. 

The museum’s impressive main hall also displays four delicate mosaics from a private villa in Leptis Magna. It dates from the 2nd century AD and depicts scenes of daily life in and around the Nile – hence its name, Villa of the Nile. 

Upstairs, a special room holds the original reliefs of the Arch of Septimius Severus (see: A solid gold bust of Septimius Severus), proof of the political loyalty of the inhabitants of Leptis Magna in the 3rd century. The relief of Septimius Severus standing between his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, was meant to express the good harmony inside the imperial family. Here is also a statue of Caracalla as a child. 

The Cyrene Room has a wooden scale model of the Agora, which, unfortunately, is meaningless unless one has visited the site. Nearby are faceless goddesses believed to represent Persephone from the necropolis of Cyrene. Also, a rare Minerva wearing the Aegis tied to her waist as opposed to her Greek version, Athena, who wears it around her shoulders. She also holds her owl and carries the spear and shield. The statue is carefully carved in pure Greek tradition. 

The Archaeological Museum of Tripoli has a rich collection of mosaics from the 2nd century AD. Many villas were built along the Mediterranean coast by wealthy landowners who loved to show off. One such example is the Roman Villa of Zliten, some 200 km east of Tripoli. It yielded a large floor mosaic executed in a wonderful combination of opus sectile and clearly outlined opus vermiculatum. The central panel is filled with different sorts of fish, and the border with less peaceful scenes of gladiator fights. From the same villa comes the floor mosaic representing the Four Seasons. Tajura is located closer to Tripoli, where another Roman villa from the 2nd century AD has been spotted. A large mosaic with geometric figures and the head of the sea god, Amfitritus, in its center has been removed from the Villa of the Nereids. 

Unfortunately, I did not visit any of these villas since they were usually closed to preserve them. Under the present chaotic regime, I wonder how many of these precious villas have survived the revolt and looting in the wake of Gaddafi’s execution. 

From Ghirza, a Roman fortress near Misrata, an entire Mausoleum from the 4th century AD has been moved to the entrance hall of the museum. It has a strange mixture of different styles that can hardly be defined. 

It is, of course, preferable to leave such constructions and the precious statues and mosaics in situ, but in case of political unrest and war, the artifacts are generally better protected inside the walls of a museum. It so happens that the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli is housed inside the so-called Red Castle of Tripoli. In 2011, following the outbreak of the Libyan Civil War, the museum was closed, but rebels managed to break into the museum and steal a few of Gaddafi’s belongings that were kept in a special room. Previously, the most valuable artifacts had been moved to a safer location. As of 2020, the museum is still closed.

A steam engine in antiquity?

We tend to think that inventions belong to our modern world, but deep down, we know that is not true. The wheel was one of the oldest inventions – somebody had to come up with the idea! 

The main problem may simply be that many inventions were not documented, and, if they were, the documents did not survive. They certainly were not patented. 

This being said, a special case is to be made for Hero of Alexandria (c. 10 – 70 AD), who was a mathematician and an engineer.  

Hero created the first steam engine ever, the Aeolipile, meaning “wind ball”. The concept was rather simple. He used a sealed caldron filled with water, which he placed over a fire. As the water boiled, steam rose through a pipe to fill the hollow sphere above. This sphere was equipped with two bent outlet tubes, and when the steam escaped through the tubes, the sphere started to spin. 

For Hero, this was only one of his inventions that he considered a toy or gimmick – a piece of conversation, who knows! 

Imagine what would have happened to our world if Hero or any of his contemporary inventors had sought a way to turn the Aeolipile into something useful. The industrial revolution started in the 18^th century when James Watt presented his steam engine. 

We lost 2000 precious years of evolution! Are there more examples of such lost chances?

Another aspect of Alexander’s personality?

Life is full of surprises and Alexander’s life is no exception. Our best sources are extant books by Arrian, Diodorus, Curtius, Plutarch, and Justin, but contemporary documents are far more difficult to find (see: Eyewitness accounts of Alexander's life). Alexander’s Royal Journals carefully kept by Callisthenes and Eumenes have not survived, except for some rare fragments whose origins cannot be verified with certainty.

Browsing through Robinson’s book, The History of Alexander the Great and the Ephemerides of Alexander’s Expedition, I was intrigued by the few lines that survived Ephippus’ writing. 

Ephippus of Olynthus was a historian and contemporary of Alexander. It is unclear whether this man is the same as Ephippus of Chalcis, mentioned by Arrian as one of the superintendents Alexander installed in Egypt. The reason to link both names is that the city of Olynthus is part of Chalcis. Otherwise, our Ephippus may well have lived at the king’s court or shortly after his death. 

He is known as the author of a lost pamphlet “On the death (or funeral) of Alexander and Hephaistion,” as mentioned by Athenaeus of Naucratis, who lived about the end of the 2^nd/beginning of the 3^rd century AD. The document held an account of the burial of Hephaistion and Alexander as well as of the king’s death. 

Robinson is quoting Athenaeus in several separate issues, shedding a different light on Alexander than what other, usually Greek, sources tell us. 

According to Ephippus, Alexander spent one hundred minas on a dinner with his friends, i.e., sixty or seventy of them. It seems the author is reacting to some critics about Alexander’s expenses compared to those of the Persian king, who spent four hundred talents for his 15,000 invites. Converting the currencies, however, both expenditures come to the same amount per capita.

Another observation made by Ephippus is that the Macedonians never understood how to drink in moderation, but drank a lot of wine at the beginning of a feast. The case of Proteas of Macedonia, who was a sturdy guy, is highlighted because he drank a great deal all his life. Alexander, Ephippus said, once ordered a six-quart cup of wine, and after a drink, toasted Proteas, thereby extending a challenge to him. Proteas took the cup, sang praises to his king, and drank the rest of the wine under the wide applause of those present. A little later, Proteas ordered another such cup, toasted the king, and took a drink. Alexander then (accepting the challenge) took it but could not hold it, falling back on his cushion and dropping the cup from his hands. The king fell ill and died. 

This scene inspired Oliver Stone in his Alexander movie during a scene played in India. However, this is not how the king died, and the text puts serious question marks behind the assumption that Ephippus lived at Alexander's court at the time of his death. The truth about Alexander’s death, for me, lies elsewhere as I discussed on previous occasions (see: A personal approach to the cause of death for Alexander).

Regarding the luxury of Alexander, Ephippus tells us that the king had a golden throne, and couches with silver feet “on which he used to sit and transact business with his companions”. These couches are known from the Susa wedding party, but the link is not made in this text. 

Ephippus continues by stating that Alexander also wore “sacred vestments”, such as the purple robe, cloven sandals, and horns of Ammon as if he were a god. At times, he would imitate Artemis, wearing her dress while driving his chariot. Alexander also had a Persian robe and displayed the bow and javelin of the goddess above his shoulder. Sometimes, he dressed as Hermes, and sitting with his friends, he wore the god’s sandals and the petasus, holding the caduceus in his hand. In everyday use, he would appear wearing a purple riding cloak and a purple tunic with white stripes, and the Macedonian causia holding the royal diadem. Referring to Heracles, Alexander would wear a lion’s skin and carry the god’s club. 

To my own astonishment, Ephippus also says that Alexander used to have the floor sprinkled with perfumes and fragrant wine, while incense and myrrh were burnt in his presence. If this is true, I presume it would happen only while the king resided in one of the Persian palaces? The bystanders are said to remain silent out of fear of his violence, “with no regard for human life.” 

Athenaeus further quotes Ephippus, saying that Alexander arranged a festival for Dionysus at Ecbatana. He does not tell us when this sacrifice occurred but I would assume it was in 324 BC, maybe around the death of Hephaistion. 

The local satrap Satrabates had invited all the troops (just try to picture the scene!) for his lavish feast, and many speeches of praise and flattery were made to impress Alexander. As in Samarkand, some of these praises turned into insolence. However, with the king’s complicity one of his armorers totally went overboard by having the herald announce that he, Gorgus, would shower the son of Ammon with 3,000 gold coins; and whenever Alexander would besiege Athens, he would add 10,000 full suits of armor and as many catapults and other missiles needed for the war. 

Such words clearly illustrate how preposterous and absurd these flatteries of Alexander were! Freedom of speech? 

Shifting through Ephippus' lines, it is difficult and even impossible to determine what is correct and what is not. As always, opinions are divided. Ephippus’ version of the facts is examined in detail by Antony Spawforth in his article The Pamphleteer Ephippus, King Alexander and the Persian Royal Hunt.

A Colosseum in Mastaura, Turkey

The ancient city of Mastaura is unknown to me and the internet is not proving to be very helpful. The site is situated 50 kilometers east of Aydin, Turkey. 

In the middle of nowhere, aerial pictures revealed a circle around a depression that was too perfect to be natural. The untrained eye may miss it altogether but the hidden contours belonged to a Colosseum. A lot of vegetation and a thick layer of soil has hidden this Roman construction from view for centuries. It was discovered in 2020 and as the archaeologists started clearing the site by cutting trees and bushes that had held the stone remains in their grip, they realized it belonged to Mastaura. 

[Picture from Arkeonews]

Having lain buried for centuries, the Colosseum underground is rather well-preserved. The parts of the building above ground reveal rows of seats, the central area where the spectacles took place, and the outside supporting walls and vaults. It is definitely smaller than its counterpart in Rome. 

The amphitheater could soon be dated to about 200 AD, i.e., the days when emperors of the Severan Dynasty ruled, 193-235 AD. 

Usually, amphitheaters are oval-shaped, but this is one of the rare circular examples, measuring 30x40 meters. The only round example I have ever seen was in Cyrene, modern Libya. There, its life started as a theater but the expansion of the city called for an amphitheater. Lacking the space for an oval shape, the builders simply mirrored the existing theater to create a round amphitheater (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). 

The Colosseum of Mastaura offered seating to 15,000-20,000 people, which may have come from neighboring cities such as Aphrodisias, Miletus, Priene, and Ephesos. It is one of three such arenas discovered so far in Turkey. The spectacles were similar to the gladiator battles and animal fights organized all over the Roman Empire. 

Mastaura appears to be built inside a narrow valley, maybe along a small river and covered an amazing surface of 160,000 m2. Over the past two years, researchers unearthed an impressive underground sewage system that spread over the entire city. Based on the engineering technique and the materials used, it can be dated to around 200 BC and was probably used well into the days of Roman imperial rule. The size of the sewer is such that one can comfortably walk inside them. For now, the passage is blocked some 20 meters into the system because the walls caved in. 

[Picture from Arkeonews/IHA]

A lot of work remains to be done at Mastaura, like reinforcing some sections of the walls and brickwork of the Colosseum, clearing the sewage system, and exposing more buildings and artifacts around the city.

Mastaura was important enough to mint its own coins in Roman times, and a substantial number has been found so far and needs to be further analyzed.

To our immortal hero, Alexander. Στην υγειά σας!

How about crowning Alexander with a gold wreath on his birthday? In Greek antiquity, gold wreaths symbolized glory, power, and immortality – three qualities that certainly apply to Alexander! 

These wonderful creations were imitations of laurel, myrtle, olive, ivy, or oak worn during symposia and in processions. I elaborated on the subject in my earlier blog post: Wreaths and crowns of leaves or gold. They also accompanied important people to their burial site, as is the case of Philip’s tomb in Aegae. The gold wreath stood for the king's victories in battle and his immortality. 

Each type of leaf came with its own significance. For instance, oak leaves representing wisdom were used in Philip’s days. They also were symbols of Zeus, as were olive branches. Gold wreaths could also be dedicated to the gods at their respective sanctuaries. 

After Alexander’s death, these wreaths became more popular. They were the result of a high level of craftsmanship since the thin gold sheets had to be shaped into life-like leaves and flowers to produce an extremely fragile piece. 

By the late 2^nd /3^rd century, they were exclusively reserved for the aristocracy, as recorded by Athenaeus of Naucratis. He was an Egyptian-born Greek writer, who mentioned that guests at luxurious dinner parties in Alexandria wore such gold wreaths. 

Let’s invite ourselves to Alexander’s birthday party and raise our wine beaker to his eternal glory. HAPPY BIRTHDAY!

Does age matter?

Writing about Alexander over the years, I have been handling chronological dates for his whereabouts in the correct time frame. There is, however, another approach to consider and that is Alexander’s age. 

We know he became king at the age of twenty and started his invasion of Asia at the age of twenty-two. He died a month short of his 33^rd birthday. All his marches, sieges, battles, and fighting are condensed within this last period of roughly ten years. 

A comparison with any modern monarchy is impossible because there are hardly any kings left and they no longer go to war at the head of their army. To compare Alexander with young men his age today is out of the question also simply because life and the circumstances of living are too far apart. 

Alexander has been taught by Aristotle but again this kind of education cannot be identified with the teaching of a young man in our modern world. I believe that even Philip, although he intended to do what was best for his son, underestimated the vastness of Aristotle’s knowledge. Alexander was meant to rise above Philip because he understood how to draw from Aristotle’s vast database (to use modern terminology) and merge it expertly with his innate infallible instinct - his genius. 

However, Philip may well have realized the potential of his 16-year-old son when he entrusted him with the seal of Macedonia while campaigning against Byzantium. The young prince honored his assignment as Regent by successfully putting down the Maedi revolt on the country’s northern border. 

Two years later, Philip put his son in command of his cavalry at the Battle of Chaironeia. Alexander did more than his share and annihilated the entire Theban Band, all three hundred of them! 

We don’t know how much time the young prince spent among the soldiers growing up in Pella, but I think it is safe to assume it was a lot. Leading the small contingent against the Maedi and the cavalry in Chaironeia speaks volumes. An army has that instinctive flair to recognize a true leader, one they can and will trust. 

This trust would only grow when Alexander became king after his father was murdered. In the next two years, he successfully led his troops against the Illyrians and the Thracians to secure his northern borders, sacked the city of Thebes in retribution for its betrayal, and confirmed his position as Hegemon of Greece as per the Treaty of Corinth. Alexander could never have contemplated his campaign in Asia without the full trust and commitment of his army. 

He crossed the Hellespont shortly before his 22^nd birthday and fought the Persian army for the first time at the Granicus River. Later that summer, he marched to Sardes and took Ephesos, Priene, Miletus, Didyma, and Halicarnassus. Alexander spent the following winter in Lycia, after which he conquered Phaselis and Perge. 

When he was 23 years old, he headed north to Sagalassos and from there to Gordion, where he cut the knot. Crossing Cappadocia, he returned to the shores of the Mediterranean. At Tarsus, he fell sick with a fever, which incapacitated him for several weeks. By the end of the year, he was engaged in the Battle of Issus, his first personal confrontation with King Darius. 

In two years, Alexander fought two major battles (see: The Battle of the Granicus and The Battle of Issus, where Alexander and Darius faced each other for the first time), besieged two cities, Miletus and Halicarnassus, and occupied all the major ports in Asia Minor. In our modern world, this means that he crossed all of Turkey. 

At the age of 24, he laid siege to two more cities, Tyre (building a mole in the process) and Gaza. His reception in Egypt was that of a liberator, and he was soon acclaimed as their new Pharaoh - a title that automatically made him a god in the eyes of the Egyptians. At the western end of the Nile Delta, he founded his first Alexandria, a city that still exists and prospers today! 

Many more sieges and battles were to follow in Central Asia and India. We almost take them for granted, despite that every siege and every battle came with its own technicalities and challenges. Alexander faced many hardships as he traveled through deserts, waded through countless rivers, and crossed mountains as high as those of the Hindu Kush! 

The three years Alexander spent in Sogdiana and Bactria, from his 27^th to his 30^th birthday, were an uninterrupted succession of skirmishes and fights in guerrilla wars he was totally unfamiliar with. The events culminated with his victory at the Battle of the Hydaspes against the Indian King Porus. By then, he and his men had covered some 28,000 kilometers, creating many new Alexandrias in the process. 

Although Alexander is usually depicted sitting on his horse, we have to keep in mind that he moved at the pace of his foot soldiers. Riding bareback was not comfortable, not for the rider and not for the horse (see: No saddles and no stirrups for Alexander’s cavalry). 

It is impossible to imagine anyone covering such a distance on foot. It would imply walking an average of 2,800 kilometers a year, ten years in a row! Let us keep in mind that many of his troops were veterans of his father’s days, men in their fifties, sixties, and even seventies! Not a leisurely trip for the fainthearted. 

Speaking of walking: how many pairs of shoes, boots, and sandals would the Macedonians have worn out? Providing new ones for some 40,000 men or more would have implied production on an industrial scale! Maybe we should believe the sources suggesting that the soldiers fought and walked sections of the route barefoot?

Sadly, Alexander died far too young, and so did Hephaistion, but men like Ptolemy and Seleucos lived to the ages of 84 and 77, respectively. Age clearly is not everything!