More of What Alexander did for us

Approximately ten years ago, I posted a blog about citrus fruit as introduced by Alexander’s Macedonians from India (see: What Alexander did for us). 

This certainly was not an isolated case if we look at the work of Theophrastus, a contemporary of Aristotle and Alexander (see: Theophrastus, philosopher and botanist). He studied plants that came from Persia, Afghanistan, and the Indus Valley. He introduced the Greeks to mangos, cardoons (or artichoke thistle), jujubes (also called Chinese dates), pistachios, and tamarind. Newly imported plants were cinnamon, banyan (a fig typically from India), as well as frankincense and myrrh. 

One day during his invasion of India in 327 BC, Alexander had bananas for dessert and he enjoyed the fruit so much that he wanted to share it. Eventually, bananas traveled to the Middle East, where they earned their Arabic name of banan, meaning finger. 

Arrian revealed that in 325 BC, Nearchus had found sugarcane. He described it as “a reed that brings forth honey without the help of bees”. In antiquity, sugarcane was basically used as a medicine by Greek and Roman physicians, as documented by Pliny the Elder in the 1^st century AD. 

Rice was another food the king introduced into Macedonia after his campaign in Central Asia, and it appears that the well-known dish of Plov or Pilaf spread from Macedonia, throughout Greece and the Balkans (see: The origins of rice in ancient Macedonia). 

Alexander also introduced Europe to the cotton from India. It is said that the Macedonians started wearing cotton clothes which were more appropriate for the Indian climate. 

The colorful floor mosaic of a parakeet from Palace V in Pergamon now on display at the Museum of Pergamon in Berlin (see: The beauty of Alexandrine mosaics) is a rare example of the wide collection of animals and plants Alexander sent to Aristotle from the regions he conquered. The Alexandrine Parakeet was native to South Asia and Southeast Asia. 

As Alexander traveled to modern-day countries such as Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and India, he shared his serious interest in local cultures and habits with the rest of the world.

Zopyrion, governor of Thracia in Macedonian service

Thracia had been annexed by Philip II in his efforts to extend the power of the Macedonian kingdom and to safeguard its borders. After his death, Alexander had to stamp his authority and his rule over the many tribes once again, all the way to the mighty Danube River to protect his back before setting out to Asia. 

One would expect the northern tribes to live happily ever after, especially since Alexander took a substantial contingent of Thracians with him as far as India and back under the command of their general Sitalces (see: Sitalces, commander of the Thracians). 

However, the many Thracian tribes never united and kept fighting among themselves, putting their individual interests above all. It was one of Antipater’s tasks, as Regent of Macedonia, to enforce the peace. 

[Helmet from Zopyrion's army, found in Olanesti, Moldova]

Ancient historians have left us very little information about what happened in Alexander’s homeland while he moved further east. One governor of Thrace is known as Zopyrion. His name caught my attention after seeing the picture of a helmet found in Olanesti, Moldova, that is linked to Zopyrion’s army. 

Unfortunately, the only reliable source of Zopyrion comes from Curtius. He simply stated that the governor made an expedition against the Getae and that his army was overwhelmed by sudden tempests and gales. He allegedly lost 30,000 men - a figure that is probably exaggerated. At that time, about 324 BC, Alexander was in Persia, facing the misconduct of many satraps he had left in charge before moving on to Central Asia. 

However, another, much less trustworthy story is told by Justin. This one circulates widely on the internet, mostly repeating the content of the Wikipedia page. 

Justin, in full Marcus Junianus Justinus, probably lived in the 2nd/3rd century AD and got hold of the 44 books called the Philippic Histories by Pompeius Trogus that are now lost. Justin decided that Trogus’ history was far too voluminous, and he wrote his own abridged version. Sadly, accuracy was not Justin’s strong point, and he was not very concerned about his sources or the chronology of the events, already a weak point in Trogus’ account. 

As a result, the vivid description found on Wikipedia and the like is fraudulent with pitfalls. Here, Zopyrion is said to have assembled an army of 30,000 men. He started his march along the southern banks of the Black Sea and laid siege on Olbia, a colony of Miletus. At that time, Miletus was already incorporated into Alexander’s Empire, but Olbia was not. Left on its own, the city managed to survive the siege by granting freedom to its slave population and citizenship to the foreigners living there. An alliance with the Scythians counteracted Zopyrion’s ambition even further, and he ran out of resources. At this point, he ended his siege of Olbia and started to retreat. At the same time, his navy was apparently hit by a severe storm, devastating his fleet. In Justin’s account, Zopyrion’s campaign was short-lived, and he died with his troops at the end of 331 BC. He also reports that Antipater, as regent of Macedonia, conveyed the news to Alexander in a letter that also informed him that his uncle and brother-in-law, Alexander of Epirus, was killed in Italy. 

While it is correct that Alexander of Epirus was killed in Italy in 331 BC, the ambitious campaign of Zopyrion took place seven years later, in 324 BC. In the end, the details based on Justin’s account may contain some truth, but it is hard to filter them out. 

The Periplus of the Euxine Sea by Arrian – Part 2

The second part of the Periplus covers the section From the Thracian Bosporus to Trapezus. 

As mentioned earlier in About Arrian’s Periplus of the Euxine Sea, it could not be established whether this chapter reflects Arrian's personal experience or not. One theory is that he wrote it upon arrival in Trapezus after Hadrian appointed him governor of Cappadocia in 131 AD. 

We should also keep in mind that Arrian was a native of Bithynia, which bordered the south shores of the Black Sea over approximately one-third of its total length. Consequently, he knew the people and the geography of that area very well. As an admirer of Xenophon, he was familiar with the route followed by the Ten Thousand as they marched from Trapezus to Byzantium following the seashore.

[Bust of Xenophon, Carole Raddato (CC BY-NC-SA)]

Whatever the case, this section of the Periplus includes an impressive list of the harbors and rivers on the southern shore of the Black Sea among which are the cities of Herakleia-Pontus founded by the Megarians and the Boeotians at the mouth of the Lycus River; Tios, at the mouth of the Billaeus River and a colony of Miletus; Amastris (modern Amasra) that had a harbor 17 kilometers from the River Parthenius; Sinope, another colony of Miletus and home of Diogenes; Amisus, an Athenian colony between the Halys and the Iris River deltas; and, finally, Cotyora, a colony of Sinope. 

Ever since the days of the Hittite Empire, which reached its height in the 14^th century BC, the Halys River was the border between several kingdoms; first between Lydia and the Persian Empire, then between the Pontic Kingdom and the Kingdom of Cappadocia. By the 6^th century BC, it separated Lydia from Media until King Croesus crossed the river to attack Cyrus the Great and was defeated. 

[From the Greek Reporter]

It is worth mentioning that a 1.50-meter-tall statue of Aphrodite has been discovered recently in ancient Amastris. It could be established that it is a Roman copy from between 180 and 200 AD that was inspired by Praxiteles’ school in the 4th century BC. The ancient city was named after Amastris, the niece of King Darius III, who married Dionysos, the tyrant of Herakleia-Pontus.

The map included in my post About Arrian’s Periplus of the Euxine Sea is most useful for locating all the cities, harbors, and rivers mentioned above. 

It should be said that while inspecting the Cappadocian frontier harbors in 123 AD, Emperor Hadrian had already visited part of the southern Euxine Sea, including Trapezus. With this in mind, Arrian now informed the emperor that Trapezus was building a new harbor, replacing the mooring where ships could only anchor in summer. 

It is quite amazing to see so much geography and history being exchanged. We tend to forget the many lines of communication that existed in antiquity, with traders, merchants, scholars, philosophers, astronomers, kings, and emperors traveling far and wide, by land and by sea.

[to be continued in Part 3]

The Periplus of the Euxine Sea by Arrian – Part 1

Arrian, to the Emperor Caesar Trajan Hadrian  Augustus, greetings. We came to Trapezus, a Greek city, as Xenophon says, founded on the sea, a colony of the Sinopeans; and gladly we looked down on the Euxine Sea from the very same spot as both Xenophon and you.

With these words, Arrian starts his letter to Hadrian, introducing the first part of his report, Tour of Colchis: From Trapezus to Sebastopolis. 

As mentioned in my previous blog, About Arrian’s Periplus of the Euxine Sea, Arrian started his journey in Trapezus. Here, he visited the sanctuary of Hermes, which was also devoted to Emperor Hadrian. Arrian tells the emperor that his statue needs to be replaced with a better resemblance to the original. He also shared his critiques on the rough stone altars and the “incorrectly written” inscriptions. 

[The Caucasian Frontier of the Roman Empire. David Breeze and Kurt Schaller (CC BY-NC-SA)]

From Trapezus, Arrian sailed east to inspect the garrison of Hyssus. Here, he organized a display of javelin throwing and reminded the soldiers of Hadrian’s observations and address made in 128 AD at Lambaesis, Numidia (modern Algeria), which survived on a column found northwest of its parade ground. 

His next stop was at the temple of Athena in Athenae, where he was marooned for two days due to a violent storm of thunder and lightning, during which he lost one of his triremes. Arrian’s fleet consisted of liburnas, small galleys suitable for raiding and patrols, and large triremes. 

When it was safe to travel onwards, he anchored at the fortress of Apsarus (Gonio in modern Georgia). He inspected the weapons and provisions of the five cohorts and paid the 2,500 soldiers. Remains of this impressive Roman fortress are still standing on the left bank of the River Chorokhi, where it controlled the access to the hinterland. In 135 AD, Arrian established his headquarters in Apsarus when he led the Cappadocian legions against the invading Alans.

[Remains of the Apsarus Roman Fort, Carole Raddato (CC BY-NC-SA)]

At this point in his letters, Arrian provides a list of all the rivers between Trapezus and Phasis that flow into the Euxine Sea, adding the distances between them. 

These details are helpful to follow the governor as he moved on to Phasis (see: The many colonies of Miletus), some 67 kilometers further north at the mouth of the Phasis River. This was the most important river in Colchis. It arose in the Caucasus, and its water was unusually soft and sweet with a changeable light color. In Phasis, he dug a ditch to protect the harbor and the settlement that had developed around the stronghold. 

Arrian’s interest and respect for the history of Jason is tickled when the locals show him an iron anchor claiming it belonged to Jason’s ship, the Argo. However, he was skeptical as it looked too recent. It seems that even in ancient times, people liked to spread tales and myths! 

The last leg of this trip took Arrian to Dioscurias, another colony of Miletus, known to him as Sebastopolis. He is said to have visited the sick, which raises the question about their ailments. He also checked the city walls and the ditch to be sure they would resist any attack from the native Colchian tribes on the eastern coast. He provided a list of their rulers subject to Rome as established by Hadrian. They were Malassas of the Lazi, Rhezmegas of the Abasci, and Spadagas of the Sanigs. 

He further inspected Sebastopolis, including the grain supply vital to the army’s survival. He paid the soldiers and watched the cavalry in their exercises, leaping upon horses. 

From that harbor, the governor could see the highest peak of the Caucasus, the Strobilus, where, according to myth, Prometheus was bound and an eagle ate his liver that grew back overnight. The mountain was Mount Elbrus. 

This completed Arrian’s mission, and he returned to the naval base of Trapezus, 422 kilometers away.

[To be continued in Part 2]

The Palace of Aegae/Vergina in full glory

Back in May 2018, the restored Palace of Aegae in Vergina was expected to open to the public (see: At last, the Palace of Aegae reopens to the public) but for some unknown reason, it was delayed. 

[Picture from the Greek Reporter]

Finally, in the first week of 2024, the site has officially been opened and visitors will be able to see the Palace of Aegae in all its glory at last. 

Ever since it was built by Philip II and throughout the heyday of Macedonia, the magnificent palace was visible from afar. Set on a hillside, it was a clear symbol of power, three times larger than the Parthenon and as impressive. 

The Palace is built around a large square Peristyle surrounded by the roofed colonnade of the Stoa. The Tholos on the east side entrance, part of the impressive Propylon, has been tentatively defined as a place of worship, and the large room on the opposite west side as banqueting halls. The Palace’s living quarters occupied the south wing, including mosaic-paved Andrones. It should be noted that this architecture illustrates the innovative concept in Philip’s days. 

Interestingly, the mosaic floors that have not yet been moved to the Museum of Vergina are left in situ. Initially, the stonework and architectural decorations were covered with high-quality marble stucco that could easily be mistaken for marble. 

In December 2022, the New Museum of Aegae has been inaugurated with the Polycentric Museum which will house the statues and sculptures unearthed in the many sanctuaries of the city. It will also be used for temporary exhibitions and, most importantly, it will contain a virtual museum named “Alexander the Great: from Aegae to the World”. The multipurpose space incorporates and unites the central building with the entire archaeological site, including the Palace of Philip, the Royal Tombs cluster (see: There is more to Aegae than the Royal Palace and the Great Tumulus) and the Museum of the Royal Tomb. 

Let’s go!

About Arrian’s Periplus of the Euxine Sea

Beyond doubt, Arrian is best known for his Campaigns of Alexander the Great but as I mentioned in my earlier post, What do we know about Arrian of Nicomedia, he was a prolific writer. However, most of his works have now been lost. 

Such was the case for his Periplus of the Euxine Sea, the Circumnavigation of the Black Sea, an official military report Arrian wrote in Latin to Emperor Hadrian, who had inspected the area before him. Additionally, he composed a series of informal letters to Hadrian using Greek.

[The Periplus of the Euxine Sea, ca, 130 AD. Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-SA)]

Although Arrian was a member of the Roman imperial administration, he also belonged to the Greek literary elite. As a native of still very Greek Bithynia in Asia Minor, Arrian grew up with this dual identity making him a true Graeco-Roman. Addressing his Greek account to the Philhellenic emperor underscores his friendly and personal relationship with Hadrian.

Arrian was very much inspired by Xenophon, a philosopher, and historian from the 4^th century BC – hence his nickname of “Second Xenophon.” In fact, Arrian picked up Xenophon’s tracks on the Black Sea at Trapezus as he led his Ten Thousand according to his Anabasis.

Arrian’s Greek version of the Periplus with its valuable information about the Black Sea region luckily survived. It dates from 131 AD, one year after he had been appointed governor of Cappadocia.

In his days, Cappadocia was a Roman frontier with forts along the coast of the Black Sea. Arrian’s duty was to protect that line of defense and the routes into the hinterland up to the Parthian Empire further east. He was also responsible for the Pontic Fleet based in Trapezus (modern Trabzon) and for protecting the grain supply from Crimea. Besides those matters about his military and diplomatic mission, Arrian outlined the navigation routes and ports of the Black Sea and concentrated on economic activities and resources.

His Periplus covers a counter-clockwise voyage around the Black Sea, made in three separate trips. During his first journey, he sailed from Trapezus to Sebastopolis. His letters to Hadrian are bundled in chapters 1 to 11 and constitute the longest and most interesting part of his Greek Periplus.

His second expedition contained in chapters 12 to 17 took him from the Bosporus to Trapezus, and the third one is covered in chapters 18 to 25 traveling from Sebastopolis to Byzantium. These two voyages may well have been undertaken by different people as the narration is less personal and less fluent.

Much of the writing focuses on the rivers, landmarks, harbors, and cities, including the distances and other relevant information for sailors and travelers alike. It also includes information regarding the local population and the safe havens. True to himself, Arrian likes to insert local stories from Greek mythology such as Jason and the Argonauts and Prometheus, and often quotes Homer.

In short, a complete traveler’s guide that may still be helpful today!

[Continue reading in Part 1]

The ill-fated archaeological site of Viminacium

Most people never heard the name Viminacium – not surprising for who would be looking for it in Serbia? Tourists are not exactly flocking into that country which is not high on the priority list of the archaeologists either. The Balkans are a true stepchild of Europe. 

When Alexander campaigned against the people north of Macedonia in 335 BC, his march took him across the Ister (Danube) River. After subduing the Getae, he led his army back to camp where he received many envoys from other tribes along the Danube. The Celts from the Adriatic coast also visited the young king with messages of friendship, maybe including the tribes living in what was to become Viminacium.

Viminacium originated as a Celtic settlement on which the Romans built their fort in the early 1^st century AD. It eventually grew to become the capital of the Roman province of Moesia with a population reaching up to 30,000 people. The site is hidden under the fertile fields outside of the village of Stari Kostolac roughly 50 km east of Belgrade. Situated south of the Danube River, it occupied an exceptional position at the crossroads of a flourishing communication and trade network on Rome’s northern frontier. 

As no systematic excavations were ever carried out, all we have are tens of thousands of fragmentary and occasional finds. The majority of the artifacts come from the city’s necropolis which counts some 14,000 tombs - one of the largest in the region.  

Serbia, like its neighbors, does not have the infrastructure, the means, or perhaps the will to invest in the country’s past. Useless to point out that illegal digs are frequent.

So far, scanning of the area has revealed the presence of the Roman Imperial Palace, the Roman Baths, an amphitheater, a hippodrome, several temples, a mint, and a fleet of ships. Simultaneously, the ten-meter-wide colonnaded Decumanus has been located, complete with its sewage system. It also showed traces of a triumphal arch erected in 195 AD to honor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, better known as Emperor Caracalla. An inscription to that effect was found nearby. 

Otherwise, much is left to be discovered as only two percent has been explored by ‘experts’. 

Meanwhile, the locals dug out and reused Roman bricks bearing their recognizable stamp to build their own walls and houses. Even mosaics and other items served today’s needs. Nearby mining projects, a recent coal project, and a power plant function unhindered, it seems. 

As recent as 2020, a ship from the first century BC had been recovered about two kilometers away, according to the article in Phys.org News. In the summer of 2023 another ship, 20 meters long and 3.5 meters wide was discovered. This was a flat-bottom vessel powered by oars and sail that has not yet been dated. 

The decline of the ancient city of Viminacium was triggered by the invasion of the Huns in the mid-5^th century AD. By the time the Slavs settled in this area at the beginning of the 7^th century, the busy Roman settlement was entirely abandoned.

[Pictures from Phys.org News]

Pergamese offerings

In one of the rooms of the Archaeological Museum in Naples, I am confronted with a group of statues lying on the floor. It looks like dead bodies that collapsed on the spot. The label near the entrance reads Small Pergamese Votive Offering, Roman copy of the 2nd century AD, from a Greek original of the 2nd century BC. 

The scene makes me feel uncomfortable and I don’t know what to think. It looks spooky. I don’t even realize the connection with the site of Pergamon and if there is one I cannot tie it to anything. 

The figures are a little less than life-size and represent an Amazon, a Giant, a Dead Warrior, and a Wounded Gaul. More examples of this group are, apparently, exhibited in the collections of the Vatican and Venice in Italy, Paris and Aix-en-Provence in France. 

The statues fit the imposing reliefs of Gigantomachy and Amazonomachy that surrounded the Altar of Zeus, created by Eumenes II in Pergamon. This Votive Offering is a copy of the original that was placed along the south wall of the Acropolis in Athens in 167-166 BC, probably by Attalus II. 

They represent four battles, two mythical (the Gigantomachy and the Amazonomachy) and two historical (the Battle of Marathon and the one against the Galatians). According to recent research, discoveries near the Acropolis have led to believe that the Athenian votives were originally made of bronze. They may even be copies of a series located initially at Pergamon. The entire composition, which counted at least 50 sculptures, was meant to celebrate the greatest epic battles between gods and men, and the Pergamene victories over the Galatians, who were a constant threat to the Attalid kingdom. 

The Roman copies were based on the Athenian votives and executed in marble. They portrayed only the victors rather than all the characters from the Greek original, which raises the question of establishing the historical circumstance of their creation. From the stylistic point of view, the Neapolitan copies found in the Baths of Agrippa have been dated to the 2nd century AD. 

These votives have been leading a life of their own, and it is not impossible that more of their history will be revealed in the future.

Macedonia’s influence in Pelagonia

The exact location of the Kingdom of Pelagonia is still eluding archaeologists and historians, but they agree that it is somewhere in the region of Bonče in Northern Macedonia, close to the Greek border. 

Based on historical sources, Pelagon was established in the early 4^th century BC as the capital of the Pelagonian tribe. In the Iliad, however, Homer mentions that Asteropaius, who fought against Achilles in Troy, is the son of King Pelagon. Many other historical and mythological figures go by the name Pelagon, which does not help to define who is who. 

The kingdom was known to be adjacent to Paeonia, and early in his kingship, Philip II of Macedonia campaigned in those countries north of Macedonia. Paeonia was led by Parmenion, who decided to rally to the side of the new king. What exactly happened elsewhere remains rather obscure. 

Between the villages of Bonče and Podme, a necropolis with several tumuli has been located. These tombs date from between the 4^th and the 2^nd centuries BC and are all in the Macedonian style. 

A larger grave site was surrounded by a circular stone wall, not unlike the Kasta Hill tomb of Amphipolis. Because of its impressive 30 meters in diameter, the tumulus has been attributed to a king of Pelagonia. A particularly long vaulted corridor of 20 meters, 2.95 meters high and 2.15 meters wide, led to the antechamber and the burial chamber proper. This room was rectangular and measured 8 x 6.6 meters with a height of 5.60 meters. Like the corridor, the main section of the tomb was cut into the rock surface and lined with large stone blocks that reached up to a length of three meters. 

All tombs had been thoroughly plundered well before WW1. The roofs of the burial chambers have been dismantled, and the stones reused in more recent local constructions. Although nothing of any historical value has been found inside the graves, the remains confirm that the 4^th century BC was a period of exceptional wealth.

In the fields of Bonče not far from these grave sites, bits of three partially preserved royal shields have been discovered with a close link to Macedonia. They display a central sun with 12 rays surrounded by three concentric circles. Around these, a series of smaller suns with 8 rays are represented. 

One of the shields carried the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛ ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙΟ (King Demetrios). It is generally accepted that it belonged to Demetrios II of the Antigonid dynasty, whose ancestral capital Antigona was located not far from Bonče, but this is not certain. 

[Reconstruction picture from the Macedonian Times]

The symbolic meaning of each and every detail remains problematic, as so many variations have been found over the years. A handful of examples have been discussed in my earlier blog post, How Macedonian is a Macedonian shield?

[Two top pictures are from Wikipedia]

Spolia, giving stones a second life

Spolia most commonly appear as simple stone blocks or column drums used to quickly and cheaply build larger walls at a later date. 

Ruins from antiquity are readily available quarries used in the construction of city walls, houses, or larger buildings. Basically, and beyond the best-known examples, everything goes from bits of statues, capitals, and reliefs to inscriptions. 

Strolling through the remains from antiquity, we often come across monuments that have been partially dismantled. The larger or heavier pieces are left behind to trigger our imagination to mentally reconstruct the buildings. I have encountered many such examples, mostly in remote regions with little or no control by the authorities. 

Spotting spolia is always very rewarding. One of my first artifacts was a statue of Aegle, the Greek goddess of radiant good health, and an adjacent head in the Byzantine city wall of Dion in Greece. 

Another striking spolia was a list of Greek gods in the back of the mosque of Dodurga, a settlement sitting on top of ancient Sidyma in Lycia. The mosque had been carefully plastered and covered in soft yellow paint, but the marble slab, although inserted sideways, was kept in its pristine white marble. Some reverence to the ancient gods, I wonder? 

Recently, a spolia in the west facade of the Church St. Anna in Oleveni near Bitola and Florina in the Republic of Macedonia was brought to my attention. It carries a seriously weathered but still readable inscription that has been recognized as a letter by Philip II of Macedonia, dated from June 345 BC. It was addressed to the Katlestai, either a military unit or a small mountain community in Illyria. Philip’s whereabouts at that time are obscured by his intense transpopulation of peoples aiming to subdue them and secure his own borders. Hence, it is unclear who the Katlestai exactly were. 

The inscription reads: to those of the Katlestai who stood in battle with Philip the king against the Dardanians and conquered. Here too, a pagan text has been used in a Greek-Orthodox church. 

Especially in the cases of Dodurga and Oleveni, the builders either could not read the inscription on the spolia or, if they could, they did not understand it. 

Anyway, precious information is being saved this way for posterity as it is of particular interest to historians and archaeologists alike.