Antipater and Alexander

Antipater first emerges from history at the side of Philip, when he became King of Macedonia after his brother Perdiccas died fighting the Illyrians. 

From what could be established, Antipater was a Macedonian nobleman, born circa 399 BC. In his younger years, he must have accompanied King Philip (see: Macedonia Forged by Philip) during his campaigns to impose and improve the power of Macedonia. We actively see him from 346 BC onwards, aged 57. 

When Philip ended the successive Sacred Wars in 346 BC (see: Philip’s campaigns east and the Fourth Sacred War – Macedonia forged by Philip II - 11), a delegation from Athens arrived in Pella to negotiate the peace terms. After the usual diplomacy, they reached an agreement. Philip, however, didn’t trust the Athenians and sent Antipater, Parmenion, and Eurylochus to Athens to repeat his terms of peace. This is where Antipater is mentioned by Arrian for the very first time. 

During the Battle of Chaironea in 338 BC, when Alexander commanded the left flank with his cavalry, facing the Sacred Band, he was probably assisted by both generals Parmenion and Antipater. To seal the ensuing Common Peace, i.e., the League of Corinth (see: High stakes at Corinth), with the Athenians, Philip sent an official embassy led by nobody less than Alexander in the company of Antipater and Alcimachus. They carried the ashes of those Athenians who had fallen during the battle. 

The above clearly shows how much Philip trusted Antipater. It is known that the king formed a clique with Parmenion, Antipater, and Attalus, who were also bound by several intermarriages. 

Antipater’s private life is little known except that he produced an impressive number of children. His recorded sons were Iollas, Cassander, Pleistarchus, Philip, Nicanor, Alexarchus, and Triparadeisus. His daughters Phila, Eurydice, and Nicaea all married generals in Alexander’s army. 

After Philip’s assassination in 336 BC, Antipater and Parmenion, still devoted to their king, supported Alexander to be elected as his heir. However, the neighboring Thracians and the Greek states in the south had doubts about accepting the rule of this young king and revolted. Alexander had no choice but to confirm his kingship from the onset and attacked the troublemakers both north and south. 

As soon as he had established Macedonian control, he turned his attention to his Asian campaign and left Pella in 334 BC. He made sure to leave half of his troops in the capable hands of his regent Antipater, who became Hegemon. Besides this heavy responsibility, which included handling the finances of the military and the navy, he was headmaster of the School of Pages. 

On top of his own army, Antipater had the power to summon the militia of the Greek city-states. He must have managed the situation with excellence because he gathered a large number of infantry and cavalry, despite Alexander’s constant demand for reinforcements. Antipater’s troops were needed when he had to face Sparta’s revolt in the Peloponnese. 

The first group of reinforcements was already mentioned in 332 BC while Alexander was in Memphis, and some 500 mercenaries and 500 Thracian cavalry joined his lines. From Arrian, we know Alexander sent the funds needed to enlist or hire such recruits. When the king was in Susa, he sent a certain Menes back to become the new governor of Syria, Phoenicia, and Cilicia. Menes received 3,000 talents in silver with instructions to transfer as much money as Antipater needed to cover his war expenses against Sparta. The general made good use of it because he emerged victorious in the decisive battle at Megalopolis, just north of Sparta. 

Antipater was, unfortunately, seriously criticized by Olympias, who liked to interfere in all matters. After several years, it must have become challenging for Alexander to make sense of either version of the facts. A mother’s love is mighty, and the image of the once-trusted commander was eventually blemished. Even if Alexander wanted to dismiss Antipater, he had nobody to replace him – not until a year before his death. Alexander decided to send Craterus to replace Antipater as the new regent in Macedonia. The regent-to-be was sent back home at the head of those veterans no longer fit for service. 

Alexander called (or summoned) Antipater to come to Babylon, but the old general ignored the order and sent his son Cassander instead. That is a bizarre decision because Cassander was not his favorite. Whether Cassander forced his father to accept to let him go or if it was by mutual agreement in case of the poison complot is true, we’ll never know. We will remember that Antipater’s son, Iollas, was Alexander’s cupbearer then. 

Alexander left no heir or successor when he died in 323 BC. As a result, each of his generals claimed a part of this empire. As a matter of fact, Antipater took control of Macedonia. This, however, did not mean peace as Antipater got involved in the Lamian War. The Aetolians, a tribe south of Thessaly, decided to help the Athenian general Leosthenes defeat Antipater. Leosthenes managed to corner Antipater, but luckily Craterus came to the old general's aid, and the Siege of Lamia was thus broken. The war proper ended a year later, in 322 BC, during the Battle of Crannon, when Leosthenes was killed. 

Antipater died in 319 BC at the blessed age of eighty. Upon his deathbed, he left his realm to Polyperchon and not Cassander. The arrogant Cassander deeply resented this, and Macedonia was the scene of bitter fights between Polyperchon and Cassander for the next decade. But that is another story altogether. 

It is quite astonishing to note how much Antipater accomplished in his later years. From the time of the Sacred Wars that ended in 346 BC until he died in 319 BC, he lived through some twenty-five turbulent years. In our modern world, this is the time for retirement. Amazing!

The sanctuary of Astarte in Motya

The island of Motya (modern Mozia) off the west coast of Sicily holds several remarkable places of interest: the Villa Withaker with its museum, the Phoenician or Punic cemetery, and the sanctuary of Khoton dedicated to the goddess Astarte.

Joseph Whitaker was an intellectual entrepreneur from Palermo who excavated the island in the first two decades of the 20th century. He organized his rich collection of ceramics, glass, coins, vases, jewelry, terracotta artefacts, and mosaics in separate rooms of his estate. This display shows how a private collector could present his precious finds to his friends and guests. At the same time, it is a unique view of archaeology on Motya that yielded so many Punic artifacts.

The museum's pride is the white marble statue of a charioteer that was found buried in a shallow grave on the road to the sanctuary (see: Amazing charioteers). Remarkably, this statue was made almost simultaneously as the bronze charioteer of Delphi, whose body was more static and elongated, probably to fit better inside his chariot.

 

When visiting the Tophet, the Punic cemetery at the northern end of the island, one can only be impressed by the many child graves. The remains were either put inside a terracotta urn or buried in a rectangular box whose lids are generally lost. A very moving confrontation! The nearby necropolis was used from the end of the 8th century until the end of the 6th century BC.

At the seaside, one recognizes the two gate towers from the 5th century BC. Here, we have to imagine the now inundated road that is connected to the mainland. By low tide, carts with larger wheels could cross the isthmus, giving the impression to walk on water. It has been dated to the 6th-5th century BC.

 

At the other end of the island, the artificial basin of Khoton has been exposed, actually a sacred area that goes back to the 8th century BC. It is here that a large temple facing the water was discovered. Inside this temple, there were initially two upright steles and an obelisk. Viewing the night sky at the winter equinox, the stones framed the constellation of Orion, which corresponds to the Phoenician god Baal. During the spring equinox, the temple's portal framed the same divinity, together with Venus, the Phoenician Astarte. Terracotta remains of a female statue were unearthed inside the temple. They belonged to the goddess Astarte, establishing that the temple was dedicated to her.

 

Also known as Anahita, Innana, or Ishtar, Astarte embodies the qualities of water, especially the fertilizing flow of water (see: The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia). The pool in front of her temple clearly refers to these qualities. She is also linked to the night sky, fertility, fecundity, and war. Besides Babylon, her main centers of worship in and around the Mediterranean were Sidon, Tyre, and Byblos, as well as Malta and Sardinia. As mentioned in my post about Anahita in Persia, we should remember that Alexander must have been well-aware of the role Anahita played in the realm of the Persian gods. Like so many other Greeks of his days, he may have assimilated her with Aphrodite.

During the latest excavation campaign, a beautiful head of the goddess Astarte was found. It was made of terracotta covered with a shiny layer of white on her face, red for her curly hair, and gold for her divine diadem. It could be dated to between 520 and 480 BC. The head was discovered inside a round votive pit and a relief rosette that shows traces of gilding. The rosette is one of the most widespread and popular symbols in the eastern Mediterranean and further inland, confirming the Phoenician goddess's presence. Also, the mold of a dolphin with a large naive eye was discovered.

The face of Astarte represents an astral goddess (based on the rosette) and a marine goddess (based on the dolphin). She is the Lady of life, goddess of fertility, love, and the sea and navigation, of fresh and seawater. The terracotta is Greek, although made in Sicily as was customarily done by the Phoenicians of Motya.

Recent archaeological investigations have shed new light on Motya as the oldest city in Sicily. This sacred area of the Kothon is set around a rectangular pool 52.5 m long. It was bordered by a circular temenos measuring 118 m in diameter, encircling three larger temples. The Kothon was dedicated to Baal, the main Phoenician god, lord of the sea, god of the storm and fertility, and to his companion, the goddess Astarte who had her own little temple there. Eventually, the mighty Astarte/Aphrodite of Motya survived as she merged with the goddesses of the peoples who already lived here.

 

Once again, it makes me wonder how much Alexander knew about these western territories and their beliefs. The fact is that we may never find the answer.

[Except for the first two pictures, the next ones come from The Archaeology News Network]

Analysis of the burial sites of Himera

In 2019, seven mass graves were discovered in Himera, exposing thousands of skeletons of soldiers who fought in the city’s fierce battles of 480 and 409 BC against the Carthaginians (see: The Battle of Himera, a major confrontation). Their bodies had been neatly arranged with great respect in an orderly fashion. Another thirty burial sites were reserved for the horses, which the experts related to the severe clash of 480 BC (see: Mass Graves discovered in Himera). 

Thanks to modern geochemical evidence, specialists were able to analyze the tooth enamel of 62 soldiers who fought in both battles. The tooth’s chemistry varies based on the region of origin of the men. In the battle of 480 BC, it turned out that only one-third of Himera’s soldiers were locals. In the confrontation of 409 BC, three-quarters of them were locals. This confirms Diodorus’ account that the Himerans received more outside help in their first battle than in the second. 

However, it appears that this account is incomplete because the present geochemical analysis reveals that the outside help was not Greek but came instead from mercenaries hired for the occasion from territories outside the Greek realm.  

This discovery sheds new light on history, as told by Diodorus and Herodotus. They apparently ignored the role of foreign mercenaries in Himera to portray a more appealing true Greek intervention. We should remember that Greeks generally considered it distasteful to hire foreign mercenaries, which may be a good reason for our historians to bend their story to accommodate their pride. Building the Temple of Victory on the very location of the battlefield truly confirms that sense of pride.

Another argument for taking this decision may be the attempt to align the victory at Himera with other Greek victories across the Mediterranean. It transpires that from 480 BC onward, foreign mercenaries influenced the ancient population in the western Mediterranean. Food for thoughts!

An ancient remedy and superfood, sea buckthorn

Ancient sources tell us that Alexander the Great had a thorough knowledge of medicine and ways to treat the wounds and ailments of his troops (see: Alexander caring for the wounded and the dead).

It is great to learn that one such remedy was the sea buckthorn, specifically the orange berries this shrub produces. It is commonly present in cold-temperate regions of Europe and Asia, from the coastal areas of the Netherlands and the Baltic Sea to Afghanistan, India, the Himalayan region, and northern China. In antiquity, it even grew in Greece. 

The pretty orange berries are full of vitamins and antioxidants, qualities that were unknown to Alexander, although he could take advantage of them. Besides, these fruits contained fatty acids, which helped hair and nails to grow and were beneficial for the eyes. It has been reported that after eating these berries, the king's horses had shinier hair, gained in strength, and recovered more quickly from injuries and illnesses. Alexander most probably added these berries to his own diet and to that of his troops, making them stronger and more vigorous. 

The Latin name for the sea buckthorn berries, Hippophae, may well be based on Alexander’s experiences with the horses as the particles hippos and phaos literally mean “shining horse.” This refers to the radiant effect of the berries on his horses’ fur. 

Alexander must have learned about these berries from Aristotle since Theophrastus, one of his pupils developed the healing properties of sea buckthorn in his writings. The interests of Theophrastus were, of course, not limited to these berries and extended to biology, physics, ethics, and even metaphysics (see: Theophrastus, philosopher and botanist). 

Today, as the sea buckthorn is made available as tea and juice or oil, we know that it even boosts the immune system and increases our concentration. A sound immune system, in particular, must have played an essential role in keeping Alexander’s troops in excellent shape.

The magical site of Aizanoi

Aizanoi, regretfully, doesn’t make headline news - yet. Several years ago, I watched a program on TRT TV that showed many imposing monuments from Roman times at this site which was otherwise unknown to me. After that, I haven’t heard anything about further excavations or remarkable finds until today. The massive entrance to the Temple of Zeus has been re-erected, which rightfully makes it one of the best-preserved temples in Anatolia. 

As always, I like to put things in context. Looking at the map, Aizanoi lies roughly 200 km south of Bursa, in the heart of ancient Phrygia. The city occupies both sides of the Kocaçay River (Penkalas). The first settlements date back to 3000 BC, but what we see today are roughly the remains of the Roman city from the 2nd century BC. 

The Temple of Zeus indeed commanded the view, as it still does today, standing on its podium on top of a low hill. It measured 33x37 meters, counted 15 x 8 columns, and was commissioned by Emperor Hadrian. Thanks to an inscription on the architrave, the temple could be dated to the second quarter of the 2nd century BC. The inscription also mentions M. Apuleius as a benefactor of the city. 

The base of the podium of this temple is covered with vaults – an unusual and unique occurrence in Roman Anatolia. Archaeologists concluded that this was a double temple, with the one dedicated to Zeus beckoning us, and a vaulted underground space where the cult of Cybele was practiced. This goddess was worshipped under the name Metre Steunene in Aizanoi. However, more recent in-depth research has revealed that this temple could not be devoted to both Zeus and Cybele. Consequently, the underground space is thought to be a prophecy center or a mere storage room. Whatever its purpose, it is an odd construction. 

Opposite the temple are the remains of a small Bouleuterion, but its history remains unknown. The same problem applies to the Heroon and the Agora and surrounding Stoa because the remains were either reused on other structures or disappeared under the modern houses. 

Aizanoi counts remains of many monuments, among which a rare combined theater-stadium complex linked together by a large stage building. Its construction started shortly after 160 AD and was completed halfway through the 3rd century AD. Several inscriptions have been found in the stadium and the theater, and they confirm that the same M. Apuleius contributed substantially to building this complex. 

The excavations done between 1970 and 2011 have exposed two public Baths, a Gymnasium, a Macellum, five bridges, an ancient dam, a colonnaded street, and a large necropolis. 

One of the Baths stood between the theatre-stadium complex and the Temple of Zeus and included a Palaestra or Gymnasium. With its recognizable frigidarium and caldarium, the Bath has been dated to the end of the 2nd century AD. In the largest side room, a marble statue of Hygeia was found. Also, the water and heating pipes are still in situ. Despite its rich marble décor, it has been recognized as a precursor of the Turkish-style Bath. The Palaestra is located at the northeast end of the Baths. 

The second Turkish-style Bath built a century later was found northeast of the city center. Here a beautiful mosaic floor representing a satyr and a maenad has been exposed. 

[Picture from Arkeonews]

The circular Macellum of Aizanoi was built simultaneously with the first Bath and was used as a food market. Here, a copy of the Price Edict of Diocletian from 301 AD was found. The edict aimed to limit the severe inflation that followed the debasement of the coinage initiated by Emperor Nero. 

During recent excavations, remains of a colonnaded street have been uncovered over a length of 450 meters. This street had its own Stoa, which could be dated to ca. 400 AD. A pedestal carried a marble statue of a satyr dressed with panther skin stands at the very end of the Stoa. 

The Roman city of Aizanoi occupied both sides of the Kocaçay River and was protected against the rise of the water level by walls or dams made of large cut stones. Two of the five bridges are still used today. They both have five arches, and one of them still supports modern-day traffic. In between these two examples, we can recognize the remains of a bridge with three arches that fell in disuse. Further north, a low wooden bridge was used as a pedestrian crossing. 

The main bridge displays an inscription on the pedestal of the railing and tells us it was opened in September 157 AD. An illustrating relief shows the sea voyage undertaken by M. Apuleius as he paid for the bridge’s construction. It may be essential to mention that M. Apuleius represented Aizanoi in the Panhellion Union held in Athens from 153 to 157 AD. The new railing was installed in 1990. 

The large necropolis of Aizanoi reflects the size of the city. It includes a wide array of tombs, including door-shaped Phrygian tombs from the 2nd century AD. The typical tomb doors, which often bore the name of the deceased or donor, symbolized the passage to the other world. These tombstones usually showed bulls, lions, or eagles for the men and baskets of wool or a mirror for the women. 

In one of the tombs, archaeologists made a remarkable discovery. They found a “lykion,” a typical jar made to contain a precious salve to treat eye dryness which frequently occurred to soldiers traversing large stretches of dry lands or deserts (see: Eye cream from antiquity). 

[Picture from Daily Sabah]

More recently, they unearthed a jug containing an exceptional hoard of 651 silver coins from the days of Emperor Augustus. Remarkably, 439 coins were standard Roman silver denarii, but 212 were cistophorus coins typically from Pergamon. This is not surprising considering that Aizanoi was ruled by Pergamon until the kingdom was bequeathed to the Romans in 133 BC. 

Aizanoi started minting its first coins in the second and first centuries BC. During the days of the Roman Empire, the city grew wealthy thanks to the production of grain, wine, and wool. Aizanoi fell into decline in Late Antiquity.

The missing piece in the puzzle

The story began in 2017 when a Belgian art collector put several archaeological elements up for sale. The European art catalog offered pieces belonging to a Daunian funerary stele, which were noticed by a State Archaeology lab in Apulia, southeast Italy. 

The stele presented by the Belgian collector was missing its centerpiece. An official from the restoration lab had noticed that the missing part was exhibited in the museum’s collection. It represented a warrior on horseback and his shield. 

[Picture from Archaeology News Network. Credit: Italian Carabinieri Art Squad]   

This was indeed the proverbial missing piece in the puzzle, which set in motion the complete investigation. Soon, Italian authorities recovered nearly 800 separate artifacts which the Belgian collector had gathered illegally. The pieces included Daunian steles, red figure vases, black glazed Apulian ceramics, amphorae and a great number of terracotta figurines. The artifacts have been dated to the period between the 6^th and the 3^rd century BC, and their value has been estimated to 11 million Euros. 

Luckily, the rare collection has been repatriated to Italy after all the legal appeals of the collector were dismissed. That is an excellent result, of course, although the items have all been taken out of their context and sadly we’ll never know to which grave or tomb they once belonged.

Travelling surprise in Greece

Knowing where to go and what to see is very important in any travel plan, but some surprises can turn out to be true gems. 

It so happened that I could visit the recently excavated cemetery of Akanthoy, near Ierissos, North Chalkidikis. The finds date roughly from the 7th-6th century BC, i.e., before Alexander and thus something he would have known.

According to Thucydides, the ancient city of Akanthos was founded as a colony of Andros, or, if we follow Plutarch, jointly by Andros and Chalkis in the middle of the 7th century BC. It sat on top of a prehistoric settlement. The city took the side of the Persians both in 499 BC (First Persian War) and 480 BC (Second Persian War) and sided with the Athenians in 431 BC during the Peloponnesian War. With the expansion of Macedonia under Philip and Alexander, Akanthos was incorporated into their kingdom. In 200 BC, the city was plundered by the Romans and became a mere province. 

The cemetery has been located underneath the modern city of Ierissos. It has yielded more than 14,000 findings confirming that the site was used all through the Roman age. The best artifacts have, of course, been moved to the Archaeological Museum of Polygyros. 

One of the fascinating spots I happen to stumble upon by chance is these lovingly cared-for tombs discovered in 2014, where everything is kept in situ. I admire the work of the archaeologists who managed to unearth these tombs from different eras in superposed layers while leaving each one undisturbed by the excavation of the others. 

Jars of all sizes and shapes (varying with time) alternate with small tombs, roofed or not. A few poignant small tombs still contain the cremated remains with their original grave goods on top – little earthen pots and jars that helped define the burial date. Also, skeletons of what seem to be young children are surrounded by toy horses and miniature vases. There also are many larger rectangular tombs in terracotta.

Outside, in front of an unmarked building, many larger pots have been collected, some wrapped in protective plastic. They are all waiting to be cataloged and studied together with smaller items filling colorful crates. Archaeology requires a lot of patience!

An introduction to the Scythians

The Scythians are mentioned in different contexts throughout my blog, but they have never been discussed as a people. 

[Picture from World History Encyclopedia.  A map illustrating the expansion of the warrior nomad Scythians between the 7th and 3rd century BC across Asia and Europe. (Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-SA)]

We have to go back to Herodotus in the 5th century BC, who mentions the Scythians for the first time. The author concentrates on Ukraine, although his description might well extend to the tribes in Central Asia. When talking about the Scythians, we refer to many different tribes roaming the steppes north of the “civilized” world. Their habitat stretched roughly from the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea (north of Persia) to Central Asia and the desert of Mongolia. At this far easterly end, the Chinese protected themselves from Scythian invasions by building their famous Great Wall. 

Generally living in small bands, they attacked the cities and towns situated south of their extensive east-west frontier. After a more or less sudden devastating incursion, they would withdraw with their booty into their vast nomadic Eurasian steppe lands. Over the years, some tribes settled as farmers, but they were not interested in founding cities of their own. 

In Central Asia and Persia, the Scythians were called Sacae as both tribes shared the same Indo-European language and lifestyle. These Sacae are called Skudat, which the Persians understood as Sakâ. The Greeks, in turn, used the name Skythes or Skythai. No wonder the Scythians show up so often in history under a different disguise. 

The Persians suffered repeated attacks from the Scythians, who, even shortly, dominated the Medes in the 7th century BC. They are also known to have played a significant role in the Sack of Nineveh in 612 BC. 

As a result of Miletus’ colonization, the Kingdom of the Bosporus emerged (see: The Kingdom of the Bosporus). It reached its peak between the 6th and the 3rd century BC. During that period, the new settlers maintained strong cultural and trade relations with the Scythians. Over the centuries, the kingdom with its capital of Panticapaeum became a melting pot of civilizations as the Greeks mingled with neighboring Pontic Scythians. 

An earlier blog, A cast helmet from Central Asia, discussed a helmet found near Maracanda, in the tomb of a Sacae leader. The technique of cast helmets was customary in China, which proves that these nomadic Scythians lived far to the east. This particular helmet dated from the 6th century BC and became obsolete afterward. 

The Massagetai tribe living near the Aral Sea was also Scythian. In 529 BC, Cyrus the Great attacked this tribe, ruled by Queen Tomyris. That happened after Cyrus’ negotiation to marry her failed. She bluntly refused to submit to him. As a result, the king attacked her and her tribe, and she died on the battlefield. 

The Scythians also successfully withstood Darius the Great’s attack at the beginning of the 5th century BC. Later that century, the Pontic Scythians took possession of Thrace. 

In the 5th century BC, the Odrysian Kingdom was founded – merely a union of more than forty tribes that turned Thracia into a powerful state. The Odrysians and the Scythians had reached peaceful relations through their inter-dynastic marriages, which led to establishing the border of their lands at the Danube River. Both peoples mingled and were generally recognized as Scythians. Their agreement, however, was not meant to last as, in the end, southern and central Thrace were divided among the Odrysian kings. Eventually, Philip II conquered their land in 340 BC. The Getae ruled the northeast section. 

Alexander attacked these Getae after his pursuit of the Triballians to the banks of the Danube River in 335 BC. The Triballians had sought refuge on an island. Instead of attacking them in that awkward position, Alexander decided to isolate them and go after the Getae on the other bank of the Danube. He managed to ferry 4,000 infantrymen and 1,500 cavalry across the wide river by night. No wonder the Getae were in shock when they woke up with this army on their land and fled to the hinterland (see: Crossing the Danube River). 

A noteworthy Odrysian Thracian is Sitalces. His true origins remain relatively obscure, but apparently, he was a prince, maybe even the son of King Cersobleptes of the Odrysian Thracians. He joined Alexander’s army and proved to be a competent commander who led the Thracian javelin men on more than one occasion. The Thracians appear again at the Battle of Gaugamela. They were placed with the main body of the Macedonian troops, under the command of Sitalces once again (see: Sitalces, commander of the Thracians). Sitalces was also one of the three generals who, on Alexander’s orders, executed Parmenion in Ecbatana (see: The Philotas Affair – Part II – His judgment and execution). 

Back in Central Asia, we should mention the story of a Scythian chief named Karthasis, who offered one of his daughters – most probably one of those warlike Scythian young women - in marriage to Alexander. The King declined, but the story may well have triggered the tale of the Amazons. 

In 329 BC, Alexander marched north to Cyropolis, a city founded by Cyrus the Great. But Cyropolis was situated about 10 km away from the Jaxartes River. Alexander felt that it didn’t serve his purpose, i.e., to protect the country against the nomads inhabiting the lands beyond the majestic river. He decided to build a city of his own, Alexandria-Eschate or Alexandria-the-Furthermost (Ultima), right on the banks of the Jaxartes – the location of today’s Khodjend in Tajikistan. Shortly after starting his project, a general revolt broke out, and the entire area exploded into armed resistance, making it clear that the Macedonians were not welcome. The Scythians on the opposite shore of the Jaxartes also grew furious. Consequently, Alexander set the crossing of the river in motion. He conceived a flotilla of large rafts made of stuffed leather tent covers, rigged together and covered with a sturdy platform. These rafts could carry a heavy contingent of men and even horses. Besides, Alexander equipped them with long-range catapults, a kind of machine the Scythians would discover for the first time.

When the Scythians recovered from their first shock and surprise, they played their favorite maneuver by riding and attacking in circles. Alexander threw in a mixed force of infantry and cavalry and successfully broke the circle, sending the Scythians to retreat after being hunted down by Alexander for several miles into the desert (see: Alexandria-Eschate and Cyropolis). 

The above gives insight into the Scythians' link between Greece, Persia, India, and China. It may somehow have laid the foundation of the Silk Road as a vast trade network. 

Although the Scythians have no written records, they left us substantial archaeological evidence of their high skills in metalwork. Monumental burial mounts across the Eurasian steppe reveal high-quality jewelry, weapons, vessels, horse harnesses, belts, and other decorative items, mostly made of gold. 

Inevitably, some of these Scythian tribes, such as the Pontic Scythians, settled as farmers, while others kept roaming the vast steppes from Mongolia to the Black Sea area. In the early Middle Ages, the most westerly tribes blended in and mixed with the early Slavs.

Paphos, the King’s Tombs that belong to no King

One of the most appealing sites of Paphos may well be the so-called “Tombs of the Kings,” although the name is very misleading. No king has ever been buried in any of these underground tombs, but the place is impressive all the same. I stumbled on this peculiar site quite by accident, surprised by the name and location, hardly two kilometers from today’s town of Paphos. 

The “Tombs of the Kings” is an amalgam of underground tombs and burial chambers that create the feeling of a small city – a city of the dead that is. It started to be used as early as the 3rd century BC by Ptolemaic aristocrats and functioned till the 3rd century AD. The burial practice continued into early Christianity when tombs became chapels. Today it has been declared a World Heritage Site. The graves are carved out of solid rock and show a definite Greek, if not Macedonian, influence. The use of this style is not surprising since Cyprus was part of Ptolemy’s heritage after Alexander the Great’s death. The prosperous island (see: Focus on Paphos, Cyprus) was subject to quarrels until the competitive Diadochi finally settled their differences. 

Some tombs appear like miniature houses with a central court surrounded by Doric columns shading frescoed walls. Not all columns are fluted, but the architraves and door lintels often are crowned with the typical frieze of alternating triglyphs and metopes, including the regulae and guttae. In the courtyard and corridors walls, we find niches meant to hold the remains of individual corpses. The space in between the niches displays exciting reliefs. It is not difficult to mentally recreate a lively picture of the costly grave goods and jewelry looted in ancient times. Some of these villa-like constructions are rather elaborate, with arched passageways and staircases running up and down. Originally most walls and tombs were covered with stucco and enhanced with frescoes, of which many traces have survived. It was customary to celebrate the anniversaries of the deceased loved ones with a ceremonial meal, sharing the food with the dead. The custom was common in antiquity, but here the practice creates a rather homely feeling. 

One of the tombs has a large block left uncut in the middle of the atrium, creating more niches. Archaeologists have counted 18 burial sites here, all from Hellenistic times, and three of them were still intact. One of these three contained the remains of a child buried in a terracotta pipe, while the two other tombs revealed precious gifts like a gold myrtle wreath and a fine amphora from Rhodes. 

It is a highly unusual site and most definitely worth a visit!

Looting, looting and more looting

Treasure hunters are of all times, from the Assyrians and Egyptians to the Greek, Roman, or Byzantine times. They don’t care about the tombs, the churches, or city remains as their only concern is to find valuable artifacts, mostly gold objects. These treasure hunters ignore that their finds are out of context forever. Archaeologists arriving on the site after the robbery generally miss too many pieces to recreate what is lost. 

Turkish authorities have assessed that curfews and lock downs to prevent the spread of Covid have encouraged both professional and amateur looters to carry out illegal digs all over the country. 

Turkey is extremely rich in archaeological sites, many of which have not been excavated yet. It is unfortunate to hear the Ministry of Culture and Tourism confirm that during the past two years, some 3,365 illegal excavations occurred. Of those, only 26 cases were caught red-handed.  

It is hard to imagine people able to move across the country unnoticed by local authorities. As reported by an archaeologist, the looters used generators, hammer drills, and other pieces of machinery. The noise made by such equipment is heard from afar, especially in the countryside. Still, the treasure hunters could work unnoticed by local authorities? 

Monumental tombs around the ancient site of Sardes (see: Sardes, the capital of ancient Lydia and a key-city for Alexander’s Successors) have been destroyed forever. Other examples of looting abound, from a thousand-year-old sarcophagus from the Byzantine or Seljuk time to the destruction and robbing of Armenian churches in search of gold mainly. It remains challenging to trace the smuggling route of the artifacts abroad. 

The pandemic has caused the loss of human life all over the country, but nobody could expect this surge of illegal hunters, causing another loss to the history of humankind.