There is more to Aegae than the Royal Palace and the Great Tumulus

Driving from modern Vergina towards the Royal Palace of Aegae, we take little notice of the open fields to our left, where the necropolis of ancient Aegae is waiting to be fully excavated. The very area is uninspiring as it consists of a succession of more or less conic bumps in the landscape. These are, in fact, mounds covering the tombs dating as far back as 1000 BC. The cemetery remained in use until the 2nd century BC. 

Proceeding further south, we encounter the Rhomaios Tomb and the Tomb of Eurydice, Alexander’s grandmother, a few meters onward. Further north lies an undefined Public Building and the so-called Hellenistic House and the Sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods to the west

With its 8.50 meters, the Rhomaios Tomb is one of the longest tombs. It consists of two rooms, an antechamber, and the chamber proper. The antechamber measures 4.50 x 2.50 m and is 2.20 m high. A narrow band runs around the walls and is painted with flowers. The colors alternate on the deep blue background using combinations of red-blue, white-blue, yellow-blue successively, and again red-blue, etc. A marble door separates the antechamber from the main vaulted chamber, which is square (4.50x4.50 m) and 4.45 m high. Here too, a dark blue band decorates the walls, but it is plain blue this time. An impressive marble throne stands in the back of the tomb with a footstand and a kind of bed. The throne is remarkable because of its large size. It is decorated with small painted friezes in the lower part, and its armrests display sculpted sphinxes. 

This tomb has been totally robbed in antiquity, making dating very difficult. However, comparing its features and style to those of the nearby Palace, it has been possible to date it to the first half of the 3rd century BC. Last, but not least, it is essential to note that this tomb was never covered by a tumulus and that its location so close to the village is puzzling.

Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Tomb of Eurydice is another large burial monument, which appears to be the earliest known Macedonian tomb. As expected, this gravesite has been plundered in antiquity. However, based on the shards left behind, it could be dated to around 340 BC. The dating, the wealth of the tomb, and the dedications found in the nearby  Temple of Eukleia led us to believe that this grave belonged to Queen Eurydice, the mother of Alexander’s father. The monument is 10.60 m long and nearly 8m wide. It is divided into an antechamber and the chamber proper, which measures 5.50x4.40 m with a 5.80-meter-high vault. The chamber's back wall displays an elegant but straightforward Ionic façade of a Macedonian tomb whose stucco and architectural details have been well-preserved. The trompe-l’oeil painting reveals a central door flanked by two stucco windows separated by two pairs of Ionic half-columns. The frieze of flowers and the cornice of the entablature are painted in vivid blue, red, and green. Like in the Rhomaios Tomb, we find a richly decorated throne two meters high. The back of the seat surprises with a superbly painted panel showing the Underworld, with the gods Pluto and Persephone, standing in full majesty on a quadriga drawn by two white and two brown horses. The throne itself is decorated with reliefs, gilded flowers and animals, and even with statuettes of korai. 

Other remarkable tombs in the area are the Tomb of the Bella Farm (first half of the 3rd century BC) with its delicate facade paintings, the tomb on the Bloukas field (c. 200 BC), and the cist grave of Palatitsa (c. 350 BC) – none of which are open to the public. 

The Temple of Eukleia is situated some 80 meters north of Aegae’s theater and close to the road leading to the Palace. Not much of this sanctuary survived, but it could be established that it had a small pronaos of 4x2.5 m and a square naos of 4x4 m. Archaeologists assume that the pronaos was an open space because the bases for statues were found in the two corners of the naos and possibly flanking a sacrificial table. It is striking that the temple faced north. Along the west side of the temple, three bases for statues were found at regular intervals. On the face of the southernmost base, a valuable inscription was found, reading ΕΥΡΙΔΙΚΑ ΣΙΡΡΑ ΕΥΛΛΕΙΑ, in other words, ”Eurydice, daughter of Sirra (erected this statue) to Eukleia.” The finesse of the letter curving has helped to date the inscription to the second half of the 4th century BC. These elements indicate that Queen Eurydice dedicated her statue to the goddess Eukleia, worshiped in this temple. It is assumed that the other bases carried similar offerings by members of the royal family. 

Roughly 400 meters east of the Temple of Eukleia are the remains of the Sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods. This archaic deity had a close relationship with the cult of Dionysus. By the early 6th century BC, the Mother of the Gods was linked with her Asian counterpart, Cybele. The goddess was worshiped with orgiastic dances and music. On votive reliefs and terracotta statuettes, she is depicted holding a large libation bowl in one hand and a large drum for the orgiastic dances in the other. Her head is crowned with a kind of fortress, referring to her role as goddess of cities and fortification walls.

Together with the information left by ancient writers, the remains of this Sanctuary reveal the importance of the cult. A large square building of 32x32 m has been unearthed in recent years. It contained separate rooms playing an essential role during initiation and worship. Various terracotta figures of the goddess, incense burners, vases, coins, loom weights, and all kinds of architectural relics from the earlier building from the 4th century BC have been found. The excavation showed that this sanctuary, destroyed by a severe fire around 150 BC, dates from Hellenistic times. 

A recent article in the Archaeology News Network mentions new studies of a large building complex close to the northwest gate of Aegae and the “queen’s burial cluster.” However, it is not clear whether this is close to the tombs mentioned above or the sanctuaries, but I suppose it is the case. 

The building complex from the 4th century BC has been associated with the worship of the royal family. It was built with stone from the nearby Mount Vermion and set up in successive square and rectangular rooms reaching 100 square meters. They are organized around a large courtyard. The space on the east side resembles a temple with a very large antechamber and two Doric columns on the courtyard side.

More exciting are the stamps carrying the Macedonian shield, which were also used on the coins by the Macedonian kings in Hellenistic times. Importantly, roof panels bearing the inscriptions AMYNTOΥ. This may refer to King Amyntas III, the husband of Eurydice and grandfather of Alexander. In any case, it testifies of a close relationship with the Macedonian royal family. Other tiles are imprinted with ΠΕΛΛΗΣ, indicating that this particular sacred building must have belonged to Amyntas, who was given the status of hero. A similar cult is known to have existed in Pydna. Moreover, the presence of Eurydice in her nearby temple cannot be a coincidence. 

Despite the thorough looting by the Roman general Metellus in 148 BC, extensive renovations occurred under Philip V during the late 3rd/early 2nd century BC. For instance, the walls are covered with painted plaster. The favorite color was purple, with touches of green and ochre, and the scenes are divided with reliefs, not unlike those known from  Pompeii. The floors are inlaid with marble, as seen in the Palace of Aegae. However, it could be established that the cracks and irregularities in the floor levels were due to catastrophic landslides in the 1st century AD. After a period of decline, the city of Aegae disappeared under the debris.

 It is clear that the cult of Alexander was kept alive and that the building complex was a way to confirm and legitimize his power and that of his successors.

Taposiris Magna in Egypt

Taposiris Magna has been in the news lately because of the extensive archaeological diggings leading to the theory that this could be the place to find the Tomb of Cleopatra VII. This last Queen of Egypt (see: Cleopatra VII and her children, the last of the Ptolemies) leaves as big a mystery around her ultimate resting place as her distant ancestor, Alexander the Great. Anyway, this riddle has not been solved as yet.

 

Taposiris Magna lies on Egypt's north coast, about halfway between Alexandria and El-Alamein, some 60 km from the center of Alexandria. Nowadays, it falls within the Alexandria Governorate of Egypt. It’s interesting to know that it was on the road to Paraetonium, which Alexander took when he visited Siwah. Callisthenes tells us that Alexander stopped in Taposiris Magna, so we should assume this was an earlier settlement.

[Picture from Heritage Daily. Image Credit : Koantao - CC BY-SA 3.0]

It has been recorded that the city was built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the son and successor of Ptolemy I, between 280 and 270 BC. It stood on top of a limestone ridge that separates the Mediterranean from the now-dry Lake Mareotis. In Roman times, a channel 50 meters wide was dug out simultaneously as a closed harbor system. To eliminate the silt carried by the Nile, these skilled builders ingeniously added two de-silting openings to the harbor basin. Besides some shops, cisterns, and several private and public buildings, the most significant remains are those of the Temple of Osiris and a lighthouse.

 

The name Taposiris Magna means “the great tomb of Osiris,” which clearly refers to the temple. The theory about the last resting place of Cleopatra VII matured after the discovery of a large necropolis outside the walls. It contains Greco-Roman mummies, which all face the temple. Hence, the link to the presence of royalty within the walls of the temple and, hopefully, of Cleopatra.

 

Further excavations have located the original gate to the Temple of Osiris, including several stones that once lined the entrance. This may be an indication that there was an avenue bordered with sphinxes as customary at the time the Pharaohs ruled Egypt, i.e., until the arrival of Alexander.

 

The town is surrounded by a long wall that runs further south to the shore of the lake to ensure that the caravans would pass through the city. Until the 7th century AD, Taposiris Magna played a significant role in the trading route for the goods arriving over Lake Mareotis and overland from Cyrenaica (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). This forced the merchants to pay taxes before traveling onward to Alexandria.

[Picture from Heritage Daily. Pharos of Abusir – 

Image Credit : Einsamer Schütze – CC BY-SA 3.0]

The lighthouse, or the Pharos of Abusir, is a 1:4 or 1:5 replica of the famous Pharos of Alexandria. More recent and in-depth studies have concluded that this tower was never a lighthouse but a funerary monument from Ptolemaic times inspired by the Pharos - meaning it was built after the famous lighthouse of Alexandria.

 

Pending more excavations and perhaps luck, we might find where this remarkable Queen Cleopatra is buried.

The stunning mosaic museum of Zeugma

It appears that I have missed the construction of the new museum for the mosaics saved from Zeugma. Since 2011, the Gaziantep Museum of Archaeology has housed the rich collection from the earlier Zeugma Mosaic Museum, and in 2017, the revamped museum finally reopened to the public. With its 1700 square meters of mosaics, it claims to display the biggest collection in the world. 

Zeugma reached headlines in 1990 when the Dam of Ataturk on the Euphrates River reached completion as part of the vast GAP project covering both the Euphrates and the Tigris. This is the fourth-largest dam in the world. As the remains of old Zeugma were to be flooded forever, thousands of people had been expelled from their homes and lands. Archaeologists from everywhere scrambled to save what they could before the river and sediments obliterated the ruins forever. For me, such an act of destruction is unforgivable, and I wrote several blogs on the disasters of building dams (see: My heart is bleeding for Allianoi, Damned dams! and Damned dams, once again) 

Looking at the events from the positive side, I have to admit that parts of Zeugma have been saved and preserved. They include the Hellenistic Agora, the Roman Agora, two sanctuaries, a theater, a Stadium, two bathhouses, and several necropolises. The Romans left their marks with a Legion’s Military Base, the city walls, and a good number of residential quarters. Archaeologists recognize the historical significance of this once prosperous city that has preserved testimonies from the ancient Semitic culture, Hellenistic and Roman occupation, and beyond. 

Since its foundation as Seleucia by Seleucos I, the city was a vital hub on the trade routes and flourished, especially during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC. It was the Romans who, after their conquest of 64 BC, gave the town the name of Zeugma, which means “bridge” or “crossing” in ancient Greek. In 253 AD, the Persian Sassanids expelled the Romans, and their reign initiated the decline of Zeugma (see:  Zeugma, Border-town along the Euphrates River) 

As can be expected, most of the mosaics exhibited at The Gaziantep Museum of Archaeology date from the 2^nd century BC and are very much Hellenistic in style and imagery. However, there are exceptions where the scenes are purely Roman or display Greek and Roman gods side by side. Less often mentioned are the rare mural frescos that survived the earthquakes and mudslides that led to the abandonment of Zeugma. 

Several exceptional mosaics have been recovered in extremis from one of the residential villas, of which there must be many more. Imagine how much of old Seleucia is being lost because of a dam that will no longer exist, and justify its construction in the next century. How can we condemn IS for blowing up Palmyra and accept the willful destruction of our heritage here in Zeugma? 

Cute statue of Silenus unearthed in Pella

Silenus is much less-known than his pupil Dionysus, but he is an equally fanciful figure. It seems that initially, Silenus was depicted with the ears and legs of a horse and sometimes even had a tail. However, the later statues usually depicted him as bald and fat and with human legs. 

[Picture from Archaeology News Network]

Finding a small marble statue of Silenus in the North Portico of the Agora in Pella is quite unusual. He is shown with a beard and wearing animal skin and boot-like shoes. His traits lead archaeologists to recognize the features of Silenus, who moved together with Dionysus, and Satyrs and Maenads. Nearby, they also unearthed a semicircular structure and small lead pipes that probably connected to a little fountain. Fragments from a large bronze statue were also discovered. 

It is pretty exciting to hear that the excavations around the Agora are still ongoing. Over the years, this massive square has been carefully restored to give the visitor an excellent impression of what it looked like in the late 4th century BC during the reign of Cassander. 

The Agora remained the commercial and administrative center throughout the Hellenistic period until it was destroyed some 200 years later – possibly by an earthquake.

All you need to know about music in antiquity

The subject of music has been discussed previously in several blogs such as

Revealing ancient Greek music, the Seikilos Epitaph, and Reconstructing ancient Greek music, an impossible task?, and Another reconstruction of ancient Greek music, and The Seikilos Epitaph, continued.

 

ARTE TV has recently shown a documentary about music in antiquity, providing an excellent chronology and overview of how it was written and how it was deciphered.

 

Their “Echos de l’antiquité”, of which I insert the summary hereafter, can also be watched on their own site of ARTE, in different languages including English. It is available free of charge until 28 August 2021. After that date, it can be purchased as  a video or DVD.

A very informative summary is given by O2B Film, which I copied hereafter.

ECHOS DE L’ANTIQUITÉ

Réalisateur : Bernard Geore

Auteur : Bernard George

Producteur délégué : O2B Films

Diffuseurs : ARTE France • RTE

Année de diffusion : 2021 (en production)

Durée : 52 minutes

Récemment, un papyrus est découvert dans une réserve du musée du Louvre. Il s’agit d’un texte grec à peine lisible, surmonté de petits signes étranges.

L’enquête entreprise par l’archéo-musicologue Annie Bélis, révèle qu’il s’agit d’une très ancienne partition grecque et plus particulièrement d’une tragédie, une Médée. Une particularité grammaticale du texte permet d’en identifier le compositeur, Carcinos Le Jeune, un auteur cité par Aristote dans sa Rhétorique, où le philosophe et précepteur d’Alexandre le Grand cite quelques vers de cette tragédie.

En découvrant peu à peu la vie de Carcinos, dont le nom est gravé sur un mur du Parthénon, c’est tout un monde qui s’ouvre à nous : celui de musiciens grecs honorés comme des dieux et qui parcouraient la Méditerranée pour participer à des concours sur le modèle des Jeux Olympiques. 

Mais comment décrypter la musique de la Médée ? Un manuscrit médiéval, décrivant le système de notation musical antique grec, les Tables d’Alypius, va se révéler être une véritable « pierre de Rosette ». 

Mais pour entendre la Médée telle qu’elle a été entendue par les Grecs il y a 2400 ans, encore faut-il la jouer avec les instruments d’époque. Des cités grecques d’Anatolie à l’Égypte des Ptolémée, du site mythique de Delphes aux découvertes faites à Pompéi, nous irons sur tout le pourtour de la Méditerranée, là où les fouilles archéologiques nous ont livré quelques partitions antiques et quantité de vestiges d’instruments.

C’est lors d’un concert, donné dans le prestigieux théâtre antique d’Arles, que nous donnerons à entendre au public, avec la Médée de Carcinos rendue à la vie, un monde sonore que l’on croyait disparu à tout jamais : la musique de l’Antiquité grecque.

The accompanying Youtube film is sadly no longer available

https://www.o2bfilms.com/echos-de-lantiquite

 

Greek philosophers Alexander knew

In April 2021, Mark Cartwright published an article in World History with a selection of twenty Greek philosophers. When I looked at the dates, I was amazed to discover that most of these men lived roughly one century before Alexander the Great was born. This means that the young prince and later king was familiar with their works and teaching, which covered many fields. 

Most prominent are Socrates  (c. 469-399 BC), Plato (427 - 348/347 BC), and Aristotle (384-322 BC), who are often mentioned in one breath as pre-Socratic philosophers. But there are many other great names like Pythagoras (c. 571 - c. 497 BC), who juggled with numbers, Democritus (c. 460- c. 370 BC), who wisely stated that nothing comes from nothing, Epicurus (341-270 BC), who focused on the pleasures of life, and the eccentric Diogenes (c. 404-323 BC), the hippy of antiquity. 

The knowledge of these thinkers had a significant influence on the world of antiquity (including Alexander) and still inspires us in modern times. Many of these philosophers never put any of their philosophy down in writing; if they did, their own letters seldom survived. In these cases, their teaching reached us through their pupils or followers. 

The philosophy of Socrates (c. 469-399 BC) was recorded by one of his pupils, Plato. He, in turn, taught Aristotle (384-322 BC), who became the tutor of young Alexander. Thanks to Alexander’s conquests, Greek knowledge and philosophy were spread throughout the ancient world. 

Another remarkable student of Socrates was Xenophon, a favorite author of Alexander, who recounted how he led a large group of Greek mercenaries back to Greece. These soldiers had been hired by Cyrus, who had died at the battle of Cunaxa (near Babylon) in September 401 BC (see: The Persian Expedition by Xenophon). The great merit of Socrates was that he inspired men to think for themselves – a relatively modern concept! Sadly, this great mind was sentenced to death and forced to drink poison after being accused of corrupting the youth of Athens. 

Plato (427-348/347 BC) penned down his philosophical works, which would eventually influence world culture. His thoughts greatly impacted the three monotheistic religions known: as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He was also the founder of the first university in the world named after him, Plato’s Academy in Athens. This happened after Socrates’ death and his own return from traveling to Egypt and Italy. Most of Plato’s works discussed the ideas expressed by Socrates, rightfully so or not. The philosopher was 80 years old when he died. His Academy may have lived on for almost 1,000 years until Emperor Justinian, a zealous new Christian believer, closed it to suppress paganism. 

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a philosopher in his own right who made considerable contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, biology, and botany. He has already been treated in previous blogs like Stagira, the Birthplace of Aristotle, and Aristotle’s 2,400th birthday with an appropriate celebration. 

Then there is Pythagoras (c. 571- c. 497 BC), best known for his famous Theorem stating that the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle equals the sum of the squares of the two other sides. However, he was also the first to concentrate on the transmigration of souls, or, in other words, reincarnation. The details of Pythagoras’ life remain obscure, but apparently, he traveled to Babylon and Egypt. However, this Theorem may not have been his invention but copied from the Babylonians. Also, the idea of reincarnation may have been transmitted to him by the Egyptian priests. In antiquity, he was considered a mystic and not the mathematician we remember nowadays. In any case, he influenced the philosophy and thoughts of both Plato and Aristotle and many later philosophers far into our modern way of thinking. 

In turn, Democritus (c. 460-c. 370 BC) revolutionized the world as he claimed that the universe and everything in it was made of tiny undividable building blocks, which we call atoms. Although he may have written as many as 70 books, none of his work has survived. He touched on various topics like human origins, ethics, geography, astronomy, geometry, medicine, poetry, literature, and even farming. Aristotle, later on, cited parts of his works. Like Pythagoras, Democritus is thought to have spent time in Egypt to study mathematics and in Babylon, where he sought the company of the priests. He seems to have voyaged around the Mediterranean and further East to Persia and India. 

Next on the list is Epicurus (341–270 BC), who taught that “Pleasure is the principle and end to a happy life.” The modern adage may have been translated into “A laughter a day keeps the doctor away.” Epicurus was strongly influenced by Plato, Aristotle, and Democritus. From 307 BC onward, he lived in Athens, where he founded his school, The Garden. Here he welcomed both women and slaves, which clearly was not to the liking of the Athenians. Putting pleasure as his highest goal in life was often misunderstood. For Epicurus, pleasure should be seen as eating and drinking in moderation and leading a life of restful contemplation. He needed to “not spoil what you have desiring what you have not; remember that what you now have was once among the things you only hoped for.” He died from kidney stones at 71, but his school and philosophy would live long after this death. 

Last on this top list is Diogenes (c. 404-323 BC), who became famous for squatting in a barrel on the agora of Athens and living as a beggar from the gifts of his admirers. He was a contemporary of Alexander and died in the same year as the king. Legend has it that they met during Alexander’s visit to Corinth (see: Alexander meeting Diogenes in Corinth). This philosopher believed it was necessary to reject all that was unnecessary in life, not only one’s personal possessions but also one’s social status. The first part of this philosophy was widely accepted by Alexander, who did not care much for personal possessions! What must have shocked Diogenes' contemporaries is that he was very straightforward in his conversations and didn’t care for the rules of etiquette and good manners. Although Diogenes wished that his dead body would be thrown to the dogs, and despite his critics, he was buried with honor. 

There are, of course, many other great names such as Thales of Miletus (625-547 BC), one of the Seven Sages of ancient Greece (see: Miletus, more than a city), Parmenides, founder of the Eleatic School at the beginning of the 5th century (see: Magna Graecia, the forgotten Greek legacy) that was attended by Zeno of Elea (5th century BC) and Melissus of Samos (5th century BC) – maybe even by Xenophanes of Colophon (570-c. 478 BC) but that is not proven. 

Also listed in Mark Cartwright’s article are:

Anaximander of Miletus (c. 610-c. 545 BC), a friend of Thales wrote about astronomy as he apparently was the first to use the gnomon to determine solstices, time, seasons, and equinoxes. He also published a work on geography with the first map of the inhabited world (see: Miletus, more than a city). 

Anaximenes of Miletus was a younger contemporary and pupil of Anaximander. His theory was that the prime substance was pneuma, i.e., breath or air world (see: Miletus, more than a city) 

According to Plato, Antisthenes of Athens (c. 445-365 BC) was a follower of Socrates and may have witnessed his death. He was the founder of the Cynic School and wrote on subjects like physics, literature, and logic. 

Aristippus of Cyrene (c. 435-356 BC) founded the Cyrenaic School of Philosophy. He believed that pleasure and pursuing pleasure was the highest goal in life. That sounds rather odd coming from a pupil of Socrates. He died the year Alexander was born.

Heraclitus of Ephesus, an early Pre-Socratic philosopher who sought to identify the creation of the world (see: Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea. Why the Greeks Matter by Thomas Cahill) 

Protagoras of Abdera (c. 485-415 BC) also stood out. After all, he was the first philosopher to promote subjectivity because everything was relative to individual interpretation. In simple words, man is the measure of all things. He was the greatest among the Sophists, i.e., rhetoric, politics, and logic teachers who made a living as private tutors to the youth of the upper classes, especially in Athens. He taught them how to speak well – hence, our word sophisticated. Unlike Socrates, he was accused of impiety, which, in ancient Greece, meant he was executed. At age 71, Protagoras decided to flee from Athens before he was put on trial. Sadly, he drowned before he reached Sicily. 

Zeno of Citium on the island of Cyprus (336-265 BC). He was born in the year Alexander became king. By chance, he was exposed to the teachings of Socrates through the book, Memorabilia, written by Xenophon. Zeno’s study eventually led him to become a teacher himself as he founded a school on the porches (the Stoa) of Athens’ Agora. That’s how his school got its name, Stoic. Stoicism would become one of the most influential philosophies in the Roman world.

All in all, this is a substantial baggage the young King of Macedonia took with him to the East!

The rich history of olive oil

Most of us believe that the olive tree originated in Greece from where it spread over the entire Mediterranean. It thus may come as a surprise to learn that the oldest ones were found in ancient Israel around 5,000 BC. The olive oil was exported to Greece and Egypt until Crete and Cyprus started to produce their own, and eventually the production reached mainland Greece. The Greek and Phoenician colonists, in turn, introduced the olive tree to Italy, Iberia, and North Africa. In the wake of Alexander’s conquests and the subsequent Roman occupations, the olive tree became familiar in those lands, boosting warm summers and little rainfall. 

Olive trees obviously were most famous for their oil. The Greeks believed that the earlier they pressed the olives, the finer the quality of the oil was as they were still green. However, if they let them ripen longer till they were black, they would produce more oil. Then and now, the best quality oil came from the first pressing. 

Generally, the olives were crushed underfoot – a process that survived till far into the 20^th century. Several examples of these “presses” have survived, such as those found at Mesembria in Eastern Greece. A large slab or a terracotta lid on an earthen pot was perforated with holes, and the crusher would press the fruit by trampling the olives with his feet. The pulp was collected in a basin or jar underneath the lid and was then filtered. 

The earliest presses consisted of a large round millstone, usually pulled by a donkey. Those stones would roll over the olives poured into a circular container. The resulting pulp was then filtered through stacked baskets and pressed with a heavy rock placed on top. A good example has been found in Olynthus. Although the process may sound rather primitive, the end result was pretty satisfactory. 

It is not rare to find olive trees amongst fruit trees, and the field owners would let some sheep graze the groves to keep them free of grass and weeds. Moreover, the residue of the oil pressing process could be used as feed for the pigs. 

The demand for olive oil grew with the Roman Empire's expansion, and eventually, Constantinople became one of the leading importers.  Also, vineyards and olive farms arose in Syria and Cilicia, and they reached the peak of their capacity in the 3^rd-5^th century AD. In any case, the principal producers were located in the regions of Attica in Greece, Italy, Baetica in Spain, Cyrenaica in Libya, Venafrum in Italy, and the island of Samos. To meet the high demand for oil, the Romans developed screw presses which were more performing to crush the olives. In those days, it is believed that oil production reached such a high level that we had to wait till the 19th century to see it improved. 

Olive oil was and remains an essential ingredient in Mediterranean cuisine. However, many other implementations were known, such as fuel for the lamps or a component to make perfumes. Another application was to cleanse the body of the Greek and Roman athletes from dirt and sweat using a strigil. 

The most popular way to store and transport the oil was the common amphora, which came in all shapes and forms depending on their country of origin, the manufacturer and the merchant. 

Beyond the success story of the olive oil, the tree acquired a sacred significance when the olive branch became a sign of peace and a crown for the winners at the ancient Olympic Games. 

The olive branch was very favorite in Classical Athens, where the tree was considered a gift from Athena. The sacred tree stood on the Acropolis close to the Erechtheion and has been replaced with a new version in modern times. Pilgrims also carried olive branches on their way to the oracle at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. 

This all means that the importance of the olive tree reached far beyond oil extraction and usage.

The birth of Egyptology under Napoleon

Napoleon was fascinated by Alexander the Great, and for that reason, he deserves some attention as France celebrated the bicentenary of Napoleon’s death on 5 May 2021. 

The young general launched his Egyptian campaign in 1798 in order to cut off the British route to India. At the same time, he intended to free Egypt from the Mameluk warriors. With his fleet, he landed in Alexandria and fought his way inland to Cairo and the Pyramids. Unfortunately for him, the British Royal Navy, under the command of Lord Nelson, sunk the French fleet on the Nile, and Napoleon was forced to return to France, leaving his troops behind – something Alexander would never have done! 

However, Napoleon somehow managed to turn his disastrous campaign into a cultural and scientific victory. Egypt, in those days, had little or no interest in the legacy of the great pharaohs from antiquity, which they dismissed as pagan. 

Inspired by Alexander, Napoleon added a large number of scientists, engineers, artists, cartographers, botanists, mathematicians, and art connoisseurs to his army. History does not remember most of their names, but it is worth mentioning, for instance, Mathieu de Lesseps, whose son Ferdinand built the Suez Canal half a century later (see also: The canal of the pharaohs, the Suez Canal of antiquity). Napoleon founded the Institute of Egypt with four distinctive sections: Mathematics, Physics, Political Economy, and Literature and Arts. 

Napoleon’s scientific expedition made extensive studies of the pyramids and temples of Egypt, and in particular of the statues of Pharaohs like the head of Amenhotep III, which can still be admired in the Louvre today. At that time, a slab of black basalt was discovered at Rosetta, some 35 miles from Alexandria, displaying a trilingual inscription in Greek, Demotic, and Egyptian hieroglyphs. 

After the Battle of the Nile in 1798, Napoleon lost most of the excavated objects to the British, including the Stone of Rosetta and the Sarcophagus of Nectanebo II, which, among other items, ended up in the British Museum. 

Importantly, the French Egyptologist Jean-Francois Champollion deciphered the hieroglyphs using the Greek text on the Stone of Rosetta to guide him. This was a huge step forward in discovering and studying the culture of ancient Egypt. Interestingly, the inscription on the stone honors Ptolemy V, who lived from 210-180 BC. 

During his extensive campaigns, Napoleon didn’t shy away from acquiring whatever artifact pleased him or was of some value. Most of his collection ended up at the Louvre and included, for instance, the Horses of San Marco in Venice (which originally stood in the Hippodrome of Constantinople) and one splendid frieze from the Parthenon in Athens.

The history of Babylon in a nutshell

World History Encyclopedia recently posted a YouTube video retelling the history of Babylon in a nutshell. It gives a fascinating and concise overview covering thousands of years of the city’s existence.

A striking detail, in my eyes, is a cuneiform cylinder holding an inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II, on which he describes the construction of the outer city wall of Babylon. This event is dated to ca. 604-562 BC. At first glance, one can take it for the cylinder of Cyrus the Great written in 539 BC, telling his conquest of Babylon (see: The Cyrus cylinder and Ancient Persia: A New Beginning). It is tempting to believe that the Nebuchadnezzar cylinder inspired Cyrus to commemorate his own great deeds.

Could Alexander have been aware of this?