A few words of praise for Oliver Stone’s vision of Alexander

Oliver Stone received loads of criticism for his Alexander movie, revisions, and comments as if he had it all wrong. Well, nobody from Alexander’s lifetime is still alive to contest what’s right or not. 

As said in my earlier blog post about Stone’s book Responses to Oliver Stone’s Alexander, it is so much easier to point out the shortcomings than to consider the author’s considerable merit. The critics seem to forget that Alexander’s life was far too complex, too active, too magnanimous, and too genial to be told in a movie of three hours for a public largely unacquainted with history or Alexander the Great. 

At the end of his book, Oliver Stone added a highly interesting chapter “Afterward”, an excellent explanation and justification for his vision of Alexander. I can only admire his stamina.  I saved this text from some link back in 2006 and had a fresh look at it today. It is striking to read how, nearly twenty years later, Stone’s approach to Alexander is still so close to the truth! 

His plea for humankind to understand Alexander is worthy of Demosthenes, the great Athenian orator. Here is an excerpt worth reading:

The response is in what Alexander did, and not his motives, which I suspect were something like most of ours: highly ambivalent, at times glorious, at times wretched. I sometimes feel professional historians, generally apart from the human give and take of the marketplace, expect too much from their leaders -- requiring them to act from abstract principles in a world harsh with chaos, greed and infighting. We can certainly say in Alexander’s defense that he kept the expedition marching eastward for 7 more years after Babylon, with a greatness of vision that could motivate a 120,000-man army. By leading from the front and sharing the burdens of his men, he showed himself above the comfort lines of materialism, and as a known foe of official corruption, he set high standards by punishing those found guilty of stealing, raping, plundering (including his school friend Eumenes). From all accounts written of Alexander, we see time and again, his great passion, pain, and self-torture in incidents such as the murder of Cleitus, the burning of Persepolis, the mutiny in India, the kissing of Bagoas in front of his men, and the bestowing of official acceptance on Asian men and womenfolk. There is no ancient ruler, outside of legend, that I have ever heard commit such potentially self-incriminating actions. This is, of course, one of the reasons his name continues to endure – who was ever remotely like him? ‘In the doing, always in the doing’, Alexander. 

Conquest is also a form of evolution. If Alexander had a smaller vision, he would’ve retreated long before to Babylon and consolidated his empire. He would’ve brought his mother, his sister and his entourage to the Persian Court. He would’ve made a stronger, more patient effort to combine Macedonian and Persian custom. This unification of cultures would’ve been the lifetime challenge for any emperor, and would’ve certainly changed the course of history. Why did he not? 

I see Alexander more as an explorer, like many others of such a nature, not quite knowing what’s going to come up on the horizon, yet boldly reaching for the new electrical charge of change. He stayed in motion until the end, and never returned to his Rome, London, Paris, Berlin, or Mongolia, as other conquerors have. He comes across in many ways as a man who was making it up as he went along -- from Babylon through Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and back to Babylon -- where in the end, he remained unsatisfied, dreaming of his expedition to the West. I would call him not an imperialist as present fashion would have it, but rather a ‘proto-man’, an enlightened monarch naturally in search of one land, one world -- the unity, so to speak, of the womb. Given that Alexander might’ve had a longer lifetime to develop this experiment, his empire might’ve yielded perhaps six or seven centers -- such as Babylon, Alexandria, Athens, Carthage, Rome, South Spain, a world with nerve centers that supposes, to a surprising degree, the global world centers we have today – but with one world government, centered on enlightened monarchy, or, barring that, some form of governing body. 

In unconsciously pursuing this ‘one world’ concept, under the guise of a personal quest, the Alexander of the drama we created would have to be a man who believed he was the right force to bring the world into a greater sense of unification and prosperity, that he was a step in the evolutionary process. And given the cataclysms possible, I do think Alexander ruled extraordinarily well for 12 years over men, both noble and bestial, in a social fabric that not only maintained itself, but greatly expanded in terms of culture, scientific discovery, and economic progress. It’s so easy to dismiss this great effort, I think too easy, to declare it broken after 12 years of rule. But can we say it really broke apart? Even if dissolved in four parts, the basic communal energies remained in place, and his creation culminated shortly, within 150 years, in the burgeoning Roman Empire.

I cannot agree more!

The unique Temple of Apollo in Bassae

Many years ago, I drove around the Peloponnese exploring antique sites other than the well-known remains of Corinth and Olympia. 

One of my roads led me to the Temple of Bassae, which, according to my travel guide, was the only temple of Antiquity to combine Doric, Ionian, and Corinthian styles. Relying on the signposts I drove up a narrow winding road the width of my car through a landscape that seemed untouched by time. It was a most beautiful scenery dotted with circular threshing floors used to separate the grain from the straw and husks by beating it manually. These ‘floors’ also served as dancing on festive occasions. Time had clearly come to a standstill. 

As in the middle of nowhere, the grey columns of a temple appeared with behind it a normal asphalt road… I had found Bassae the hard way but certainly the most beautiful one.

[Picture from Albion Gould]

Just the other day, I came across the picture of an odd-looking temple in Figaleia dressed in ghostly white hailed as the “second Parthenon”. Where? What? It turned out to be the Temple of Apollo Epicurius in Bassae, now heavily studded. It brought me right back to that exciting drive so long ago. What happened here? 

Well, I praise myself lucky to have been there before the series of drastic restorations started. The first works were carried out between 1902 and 1908 but did not affect the appearance of the temple. Later interventions changed the glorious view I had enjoyed forever. In 1985, an anti-seismic scaffold was installed followed by a lightning protection. Since 1987 the entire temple has been wrapped in a tent to protect the monument against extreme weather conditions. This is said to be a temporary measure but after almost forty years we may wonder if this cover will ever be removed. There is not much worth seeing right now, is there? 

The Temple of Apollo Epicurius (the Helper) of 38 x 14.5 meters was erected between 420-400 BC by the citizens of Figaleia to thank the god for delivering them from the plague of 429-427 BC. It was designed by Ictinus, who also was the architect of the Parthenon in Athens. 

The Temple in Bassae built with local grey limestone is remarkable for several reasons. Unlike the general east-west orientation of the Greek temple, this one is set north-south because of the terrain or perhaps to comply with some religious traditions of the people of Figaleia. Access to the temple would be through a door on the east side, another anomaly. And, this temple of Apollo is the only known example from antiquity to combine all three orders of ancient Greece: Doric for the outside columns, Ionian for the inside, and three Corinthian columns at the southern end. What struck me also during my visit were the Ionic columns inside the cella that were attached to the wall. Two Corinthian columns were attached at a 45-degree angle to the wall and the third one stood between them. I was deeply impressed by these exceptional architectural details. 

The temple was abandoned around the 4^th-5^th century AD. As it stood in a relatively remote area outside the city of Figaleia, it was not plundered. Eventually, the roof collapsed and severely damaged the interior of the temple. The outer colonnade remained standing and that is what I witnessed during my visit. 

The excavations were first started in 1811 by a group of European archaeologists led by Charles Cockerell after receiving permission from the local Pasha. The agreement was that the booty would be split between the Pasha and the archaeologists. After a few weeks, 23 metopes were recovered. Twelve of them depicted the Battle between Greeks and Amazons and the remaining eleven told the mythical Battle between Lapiths and Centaurs. 

When the Pasha saw the reliefs, he was very disappointed as he had expected gold and other precious artifacts. For him, the find had no value and he refused to take his share. After giving him the sum of £400, the archaeologists took the metopes to be auctioned in Zakynthos. The highest bidder was the British Museum, which paid £19,000 for the lot. That is how the entire length of the frieze (31 meters) has been fitted in a room of its own at the BM. 

During a later visit to the Museum of the Louvre in Paris, I came across two sitting Maenads from Bassae. They were clearly resting after their frenzy dances in a state of divine madness and ecstasy which was illustrated by their sweaty wet chiton clinging to their body! Only a highly skilled sculptor could render this state of mind in such a palpable way. 

There must have been a statue of Apollo inside since the sanctuary was dedicated to this god, but I have not heard about its presence. 

It sounds strange to say that I did not miss seeing any metopes or statues in or around the temple. At the time, this isolated sanctuary impressed me by its location, as the roughness of its grey limestone blended in so well with the landscape that the picture seemed complete. 

The white tent covering the temple is said to protect the building against the region's extreme weather conditions. I do not understand this reasoning for after all Apollo protected the temple against the elements for the past 2,500 years.

Hoard of Roman coins found in Pantelleria

The small island of Pantelleria lies about one hundred kilometers southwest of Sicily, off the Tunisian coast which is visible on a clear day. 

During recent excavations, archaeologists discovered 27 silver coins that had been deliberately hidden. They surfaced after severe rains had flooded the area. These silver denarii were minted between 94 and 74 BC. In those days, the island belonged to the Roman Republic and served as an important trading center in the Mediterranean. 

[Picture from All that's Interesting]

It is noteworthy that in the 1st century BC, the eastern Mediterranean, in particular, was plagued by repeated attacks from pirates. They even dared kidnap young Julius Caesar in 78 BC and held him for ransom. The story goes on to say that Caesar felt insulted because the pirates demanded only 20 talents for his liberation. He personally insisted they should raise the amount to 50 talents! Caesar was released after 38 days. The pirates swarmed as locusts over the towns and farms, plundering and burning them on the go. In 42 BC, in a large-scale operation, Pompey finally managed to abolish piracy. 

During these uncertain times, people buried their valuables and money hoping to retrieve their possessions after the pirates left. It was not to be in the present case; the treasures were recovered only two thousand years later. 

A trove of over 100 coins was found during previous excavations, as well as marble busts of Caesar, Agrippina, and Emperor Titus.

Reading and decoding inscriptions

Today’s visitors will inevitably come across many inscriptions when visiting ancient sites or museums. Reading Greek or Latin is not for everybody and understanding the meaning of the text and context is only reserved for the happy few. The stone or marble support has more often than not suffered from wear and tear, leaving the untrained eye to merely guess its value. 

We are lucky to find an explanation next to the inscription, rarely a full translation as those are reserved to scholars. Well, the text may be boring but it also may contain some exciting twists and turns. Yet, who wants to know? 

In antiquity, people would read the latest laws and decrees, regulations and agreements, peace treaties, manumission of slaves, grave markers, boundary stones, milestones, etc. as they walked through public spaces. Some of these texts are still in situ particularly those engraved on the walls of still standing monuments. The majority, however, has found a place in the museum for safekeeping and is often out of sight. 

The most familiar examples of inscriptions are those chiseled on grave steles, sarcophagi, and tombs. They also appear on the pedestals of statues lining the streets like Phaselis’ Harbor Street or Olympia’s road to the Stadium. Others serve to identify the deities, kings, and emperors that fill the sanctuaries and agoras, or the niches of theatres, stadiums, libraries, baths, Nymphaeums, and other public buildings. 

But some inscriptions will surprise many of us. 

For instance, this stele at the Louvre Museum holds the accounts of the Parthenon Treasury. The text covers both sides of the stele made of Pentelikon marble and illustrates how democracy works. Athens’ magistrates submitted the public accounts to the citizens for all to see. The front side, beneath a relief of the Sacred Olive Tree flanked by Athena and the people (demos), displays the expenses for military operations, religious ceremonies, and the Panathean festival held in honor of their patron goddess for 410-409 BC. The reverse side has the expenditures for 407-406 BC.

In Butrint, Albania, a striking series of inscriptions is carved on the outside walls of the Roman Theater of Buthrotum, as the city was called in antiquity. 

They are hard to read but worth our attention because these are manumissions, slaves that had gained their freedom for whatever reason. Their sheer number is mind-blowing!

As surprising and revealing are the Edicts on prices! Who would have thought that there were strict rules to define the prices of goods in antiquity! 

The first such example I encountered was at Ptolemais in Libya, proclaimed by Emperor Diocletian in 301 AD.

Also by Diocletian is the Edict on maximum prices for products and labor discovered in Halicarnassus, dated to 301 AD. The Emperor hoped to stave off a financial crisis and prevent inflation. 

Although this tablet was unearthed in Bodrum (the modern name for Halicarnassus), bits of similar Edicts were also found in Pergamon, Aizanoi, Aphrodisias, and Stratonikea. It is quite surprising to read that the Edict from Halicarnassus consists of 37 parts. Part 9, for instance, is about shoes and boots … 27 different kinds and sizes are listed!

Taxes are another matter that deserves attention. One such inscription that is hard to miss can be seen on Curetes Street in Ephesos, close to the Library. 

This tax law was written in the second half of the 4^th century AD, during the rule of Emperors Valentian I, Valens, and Gratian.

Less obvious is Alexander’s tax remission from the wall of the Temple of Athena in Priene, now exhibited in the British Museum in London. 

Alexander contributed to the cost of building the unfinished temple and in return, he was allowed to dedicate it: “King Alexander dedicated the temple of Athena Polias”. 

This text was followed by a longer inscription setting out the terms of an agreement between Alexander and Priene under which the city was to be exempt from taxation. 

Not all inscriptions were written in Greek or Latin and I find it fascinating to hunt for these exceptions. 

Having a closer look at Lycia’s sarcophagi strewn throughout the landscape, I discovered texts that seemed to be written in Greek but are in Lycian, as they contain several odd letters that do not exist in the Greek alphabet. Antiphellos and Limyra have good illustrations of Lycian texts.

Another case is to be found in Sillyum some 25 kilometers northeast of Antalya, an often overlooked site although the hillside is easily spotted in the otherwise flat plain of Pamphylia. 

It takes some detective work to locate the inscription in Pamphylian language carved in the doorpost of a Hellenistic building – a very rewarding effort though!

The people of ancient Side also had a language of their own. A small inscription has survived and can be seen at the local museum located inside the remains of the Roman Baths.

After Alexander conquered Lycia and Pamphylia, Greek became the lingua franca and the local tongues disappeared.

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 4, the Doge’s Palace

Who would check every detail of the Palace of the Doge in Venice, except the dedicated scholar? None of the millions of tourists has the patience or dedication to investigate, beyond the general overview. 

[San Marco Square, Doge's Palace on the left]

The Palace was built in the 12^th century. The concept is atypical, displaying a smooth wall with a geometric pattern of white and pink stone, which rests upon two levels of colonnades. At ground level this is an arched white stone colonnade; on the first floor, it is a loggia enhanced with quatrefoil openings in white Istrian stone. The top of the Palace is crowned with white lace stonework merlons as seen in Persepolis and Central Asia. 

The capitals on top of the columns are all different and have many stories to tell. They serve not only as decorations but also as examples of historical, moral, and political teaching. We will recognize biblical scenes, Christian virtues, medieval symbolism, the Twelve Signs of the Zodiac, aspects of everyday life, and people of the world. 

[Doge’s Palace, south facade, Alexander the Great, ca. 1350 from Engramma]

It is in this last group that Alexander the Great pops up with the inscription ALEXANDER MACEDONIAE REX as one of the Kings of the World. He is to be found on top of the fifth column counting from the Ponte della Paglia. The picture from Engramma is not the best but is the only one available. It will have to do…

Seminar on Alexander the Great

Jona Lendering, whose name is well-known from his Livius internet site, will give a seminar on Alexander the Great in the Netherlands. This is wonderful news for the Dutch-speaking people and in particular those who do not read the otherwise widely available English literature.

[Picture from Livius]

The event will take place in Wormerveer 14 kilometers northwest of Amsterdam in four separate lectures each time at 1:30 pm on Thursdays from 26 September to 3, 10, and 17 October 2024 at the Buurtcentrum de Lorzie. The standard ticket sells for 120 euros.

For more details, please click on Cursus: Alexander de Grote

Persepolis as it was 2500 years ago

In the frame of the unique exhibition Persia: Ancient Iran and the Classical World in 2022, I shared several informative links from the Getty Museum about Persepolis in particular (see: Fascinating Persepolis). 

Last month, the Getty added a wonderful YouTube reconstruction of the Palace of Persepolis as if you visited the plateau during its heyday with all the walls, columns, and colorful paintings to welcome us - the Palace as Alexander and his Macedonians have seen it! 

Those who had the immense pleasure of visiting the site will easily get their bearings while the others can let their imagination run free! Enjoy!

“To the strongest”

“To the strongest” are the last words Alexander pronounced on his deathbed in Babylon when pressed to name his successor. 

His Companions and generals were obviously panicking at the thought of being left behind so many miles away from Macedonia without their king to guide them. They desperately needed him. 

Ever since he became king in 336 BC Alexander had shown his commanders the way and led his men by example. He certainly did not expect to die at the age of 33 and not in his bed. How could he have foreseen to be incapacitated and unable to be his own self? 

The only person who had always been at his side and enjoyed his full confidence had died the previous year. Hephaistion had been officially appointed as his Chiliarch, his second in command. The sudden death of his dearest friend left him in total disarray and maddened by grief. He was truly alone at a time when he had to make the hardest decision of his life and elect a successor. “Who, Alexander? Tell us who!” are the words Oliver Stone put in the mouth of Ptolemy. How appropriate! 

“To the strongest” has often been understood as a weak and evading statement although, in reality, Alexander’s last words are one final proof of his genius! Had he not been so much afflicted by his illness and impaired by the high fever, he would have found the strength to elaborate a solution to the Succession with his close Companions. He would likely have appointed Perdiccas. Even so, Alexander’s decision may have lost its power two years onward and the commanders would have taken the matter into their own hands anyway.

Of course, everyone around the king’s deathbed still hoped to be appointed and hear his name called out. However, matters were not as straightforward as one might think. On the one hand, he had to name an heir since as King he needed a successor, and on the other hand, as commander in chief of his army, he had to appoint a capable military leader. 

At this point, his most experienced generals were Craterus and Perdiccas. Yet, Craterus was in Cilicia taking 10,000 veterans back to Macedonia with Alexander’s instructions to replace Antipater as Regent in Pella. Perdiccas was in Babylon and took the king’s succession in his hands. 

Roxane was pregnant but the child was not born yet and there was no guarantee it would be a boy. Alexander had never recognized Heracles, his son by Barsine. In any case, Roxane’s son and Heracles were too young to rule and the generals would have to choose a Regent pending their coming of age. The next best option was to push Arrhideus forward. He was Alexander’s simple-minded half-brother and not capable of becoming the de facto ruler. As a result, Perdiccas was elected Regent at the Partition of Babylon. 

This implied, however, that he would rule over Alexander’s Companions and generals. Perdiccas’ success was short-lived though and in 321 BC he was side-lined at Triparadeisus as the commanders decided to divide the kingdom among themselves. When Perdiccas escorted Alexander’s remains to be buried in Macedonia, Ptolemy high-jacked the mummified body and took it to Egypt. In a desperate attempt to recover his king’s remains, Perdiccas failed totally to march his men across the Nile. His losses were so excessive that his soldiers revolted and killed him. 

These were uncertain times for all the parties involved in the Succession Wars. They all had the ambition to rule over Alexander’s Empire and felt equally qualified to do so but none shared Alexander’s vision. Ultimately, they eliminated each other until the empire was divided between Ptolemy, Seleucos, Antigonus, and Cassander (see: Dividing the Spoils. The War for Alexander’s Empire by Robin Waterfield).

None of the great men who fought alongside Alexander for almost twelve years emerged as the strongest. They all had learned a lot but none could come close to Alexander’s charisma and exceptional genius.

A nearly perfect head of Zeus from Aphrodisias

Aphrodisias was known for its skillful sculptors throughout the Roman Empire. They took advantage of the nearby marble quarries that provided a typical medium-grained variation of the readily available material. Whoever drives through Asia Minor cannot miss the often colorful patches of marble quarries that dot the landscape.  

[Picture is from Arxaia Ellinika]

The many monuments excavated in Aphrodisias expose the great craftsmanship of its builders, embellished with reliefs and statues as testified by the latest find. 

It is a nearly perfect, colossal marble head of Zeus recovered about 50 meters west of the famous Temple of Aphrodite. It is 66 centimeters high, i.e., larger than life-size. The deep relief of the god’s hair and beard indicates that the head belongs to the 2^nd-3^rd century AD. At the same time, it makes Zeus’ face look more realistic. 

For the history of Aphrodisias, please read my earlier blog, Aphrodisias, the city of Aphrodite (Turkey).

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 3, the Pala d’Oro

Finding Alexander on the Pala d’Oro, the high altar of the Basilica San Marco in Venice is extremely difficult. 

[Pala d'Oro from Saint Mark's Basilica]

The golden altarpiece is a unique work of Byzantine enamel thought to be commissioned in 976. It acquired its present shape and size (three meters wide and two meters high) in 1345. It is made of gold and silver and counts 187 enamel plaques alternating with nearly 2,000 gemstones. 

The enamels in the top part of the Pala d’Oro are a group of six images representing the Life of Christ arranged around Archangel Michael. The bottom section tells the life of St Mark. A central picture of Christ Pantocrator is surrounded by the Four Evangelists and flanked by twelve Apostles, six on either side. 

Hardly noticeable in this opulence of precious metal and colorful stones are the small roundels and busts of Saints in the surrounding cornice. 

Of particular interest are the six enamel Byzantine plaques of 4.4 cm in diameter at the very bottom dated to the 11^th century. 

They depict three scenes of falconers on horseback (as in Eastern iconography): 

The stylized image of Alexander the Great elevatus ad aerem (lifted into the skies) as seen in the relief on the north façade of the Basilica San Marco in Venice:

The Tree of Life, a representation of the world, is seen as a paradisiacal garden. In the center is a tree surrounded by two serpents, but also the rivers that circumscribe the emerged lands. It is the world that, in the ancient and medieval versions of the Romance, Alexander sees from above, in the cosmic vision that concludes his mystical flight. 

And a bust of Emperor Constantine of which I have no picture. 

There is nothing to link these themes together except perhaps that the enamels were gifts from the Imperial Court of Constantinople to the Doge of Venice. They were interpreted as divine inspiration through the centuries from the days of Alexander the Great to the Roman Emperor Constantine, the Byzantine emperors, and finally to the Venetian Republic. 

The six roundels, in fact, summarize the vision of Doge Dandolo to make the Venetian Republic the true and rightful heir of the Roman Empire. It is not surprising that he turned the Pala d’Oro into a most splendid centerpiece of the Basilica. 

It is remarkable to find Alexander still present as Kosmokrator (Ruler of the World) some 1700 years after his untimely death. Even today, we greatly underestimate his wide contribution to mankind, which is way beyond his military and political achievements.

[Pictures of the enamel roundels are from Engramma]
[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 4, the Doge's Palace]