A Phrygian tomb with a link to King Midas?

Last winter, a tomb was found inside an 8-meter-high and 60-meter-wide tumulus near Gordion, not too far from the famous tomb King Midas built for his father, Gordias (see: Gordion, a name with a resonance). 

[Picture from Turkiye Today, AA Photo]

Archaeologists suspect this burial site has links to the Phrygian royal family. A tumulus listed as T26 has yielded a wooden burial chamber closely resembling the structure inside the Midas Tumulus. It contained human remains, possibly a member of the dynasty of King Midas. 

Over one hundred grave goods were exposed, including bronze and iron cauldrons, tripods, and incense burners not unlike those retrieved from the Midas Tumulus.  Despite the chamber having been crushed over the millennia under layers of stone and soil, a bronze jug covered with linen (a rare find by itself) helped to date the site to the 8th century BC. 

It has been established that this tomb clearly has a link to Phrygian Royalty. 

Saving documents and books in antiquity

Nowadays, saving our documents and information on our computers is very obvious. Before the digital era, we relied on typewriters and printers to distribute our pamphlets, advertisements, letters, and books. 

It is hard to imagine that in antiquity nothing of the kind existed, but then the needs were entirely different. Public information, laws, decrees, and other important notices were inscribed on stone slabs or posted on walls in conspicuous places throughout the city, and eventually shared with other cities.  

Exchanging documents and letters over longer distances, as during Alexander’s campaigns, required writing on papyrus, a lightweight material that could be easily transported. His correspondence with Antipater, Olympias, Aristotle, Sisygambis, governors, and generals all over his ever-growing empire required an active exchange of news and information.

Eumenes and Callisthenes, serving as Alexander’s secretaries, must have been very busy and very organized. We tend to forget that they also kept copies of Alexander’s correspondence, official documents, and perhaps private letters as well. This becomes apparent when Eumenes’ tent went up in flames after a conflict that arose as Nearchus was preparing the fleet to sail the Southern Sea. 

Alexander had exhausted his own treasury and had to borrow money from his friends, including Eumenes, to finance Nearchus’ expedition. His secretary was to contribute 300 talents, but being stingy, he gave only 100 talents. Alexander did not accept Eumenes’ excuse that it was not without difficulty and decided to set his friend’s tent on fire. He expected Eumenes to rush his money out, and thus admit he had been lying. The plan went wrong, and the tent burned down entirely, leaving a clump of smelted gold and silver worth one thousand talents. In the process, Alexander’s archives were reduced to ashes. It is Plutarch who tells us that Alexander asked several governors and generals to send Eumenes copies of the papers that had been destroyed. This proves that Alexander did indeed keep a record of his correspondence! 

We so often read of papers and books that have only partially survived or are only known second-hand or not at all, except for the title. This situation is inherent to the mindset of the time and to the degradation of the natural support used (papyrus). 

Papyrus is a vegetal product and a very practical writing support, but it is also fragile. It has been calculated that papyrus documents had a lifespan of a maximum of one hundred years. This may have suited the needs at the time, but the chances of having them still around two thousand years later are very slim. 

Chances of survival were greater if there were many copies of a text, like, for instance, for theater plays. Yet, professional writers were expensive, and the costs were borne by the author. In Roman times, wealthy citizens could afford to have certain scrolls copied for their own use, but they would hardly survive after the Fall of the Roman Empire. 

Under exceptional conditions, some scrolls or bits of papyrus, however, reached us. The most telling example is the scrolls that survived the fire in Herculaneum after the volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. Only recently have we been able to decipher their content without having to unroll the brittle carbonized scrolls (see: Reading the papyrus scrolls from Herculaneum). 

Another situation developed in Egypt. The garbage dump in Oxyrhynchus that served as fuel to the local population in the 19^th century appeared to contain a huge amount of hitherto unknown papyrus texts ranging from the Ptolemaic era to the Muslim conquests in the 7^th century AD. The papyri consist of private letters and public documents such as a variety of official correspondence, theater plays, records, sales, wills, and inventories. The deciphering of the papyri is ongoing, as only a handful of scholars are capable of recognizing where the bit of papyrus text belongs. 

When parchment was introduced in the 2^nd century BC, documents stood a better chance of survival, although even animal skins had their limits. However, parchment was extremely expensive to make. 

With the passage of time, interest and taste evolved and changed. Treatises, studies, analyses, and even books and poems went out of fashion and vanished altogether. 

As the writing supports were decaying, it is not surprising that documenting Alexander’s life is a nearly impossible task, despite the second-hand recordings by Arrian, Diodorus, Curtius, and Plutarch, who could still access some original documents (see: Eyewitness accounts of Alexander’s life).

[Top picture Derveni papyrus 340 BC, Thessaloniki Museum.
Bottom picture from Archaeology News, Digs & Discoveries] 

Another case of restoration vs. reconstruction

The streets of the ancient city of Perge have been disfigured by so-called restorations! Last year, I wrote extensively about this problem (see: Restoration or reconstruction?), giving different examples. So, nothing new, except the stubbornness of those know-it-alls. 

One of the greatest pleasures of visiting an ancient city is to enjoy what time has left for us to see. There is no need to embellish the site and certainly not to bury the antique pavement under a smooth new layer of stones. If visitors cannot accept Perge as it was unearthed, they had better stay home. Nobody in their right mind will build a comfortable road to the top of the Mont Blanc, Mount St. Helens, or Mount Everest. Why expect our protected ancient cities to be turned into something that was never there? 

The colonnaded street that runs through Perge is unique, with a canal at its center to serve as an aqueduct and refresh the city on hot summer days. The pavement of the sidewalk that covers the space between the columns and the shops is one of the rare such examples that have survived. 

The old stone slabs, witnessing centuries-old ruts and other scars of time, have been covered with new stones joined together with cement! Romans knew concrete as they practically invented it, but they never used it for their road constructions! 

History has been buried under new modern stone slabs. Today’s visitor will no longer see the genuine ancient street. The entire ‘feel’ of witnessing something precious and unique has been erased forever. 

The head of the Perge Excavation Project, Professor Sedef Cokay, defends her action by saying that the original stones had shifted due “to rain, natural factors, and foot traffic from visitors”. Some stones were dislocated or missing, so what? Many cities around the world have streets like these today, heavy traffic or not. 

Second prize is the argument that “time will restore the feel of the old road”. Tricking the visitors and tourists into believing they still walk on an authentic ancient road is a misrepresentation; it is not correct and, worse, it is not true!

Reopening of the Getty Villa Museum

It is official, the Getty Villa Museum in Malibu, California, will reopen to the public on Friday, 27 June 2025. 

We still vividly recall the Palisades Fire that broke out on 7 January 2025 (see: Fire threatening the Getty Villa in Malibu), forcing the Villa to close. Trees and vegetation on the property have burned, but the Villa and its precious collection remained safe and intact (see: An update from Getty during the Los Angeles fires). 

Over the past months, an extensive cleanup took place, in and outside the Museum. The operation included flushing the water system, replacing all air and water filters, and removing more than 1,300 trees damaged by the fire. Every effort has been made to receive the public in a safe environment. 

As a first step, the Getty Villa will be open on Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday from 10 am to 5 pm for 500 visitors daily. Reservations are required for free entry, while the parking fee will remain $25. To book online, click here. At present, the Villa is not accessible via Sunset Blvd., and visitors should enter via the Pacific Coast Highway. 

As of June 27, the Getty Villa kicks off with a brand-new exhibition, The Kingdom of Pylos: Warrior-Princes of Ancient Greece, which will run until 12 January 2026. Visitors will be treated to 230 works of art from Messenia (modern Messene), the heart of Mycenaean civilization in the Late Bronze Age in Greece. 

This fall, Getty’s Classical Theater will return with the production of Oedipus the King.

Mysterious relief statues near Seleucia, modern Silifke

On the southern slopes of the Taurus Mountains lies Silifke or ancient Seleucia, one of the many cities founded by Seleucos I (see: Excavations at the ancient city of Olba). 

In its vicinity, a mysterious group of reliefs in the rock wall has intrigued archaeologists. It must be said that they stand out as gold figures against the dark canyon wall, attracting the attention of illegal treasure hunters who truly believed they could find gold inside them and damaged the statues as recently as 2015. 

There are 19 figures in all, 11 men, 4 women, 2 children, plus a mountain goat and an eagle. It is thought that they represent kings and queens from ancient Olba. 

The reliefs are presented in different compositions to commemorate the dead, such as in the ritual scene, the farewell of a soldier, or a feast scene for the dead. Of a different kind is the scene where a man holds grapes in one hand and the horns of a goat with the other. One figure is pouring what could be a libation from a jug into the bowl in his other hand. 

Sadly, the inscriptions under the reliefs do not help to identify the figures. The names may refer to the artist who created them or some important personality who wanted to be remembered. 

Scholars could, however, determine that the reliefs were carved over a period of 250 years, with the latest having been completed in the 2^nd century AD. 

These figures are a far cry from the well-known temple tombs dug out of the cliffs in Caria and Lycia, for instance, and seem to be quite unique.

[Pictures are from Arkeonews]

Iraq’s Kurdistan honoring the memory of Alexander the Great

Several years ago, there were talks between Athens and Baghdad to intensify cultural cooperation. One point on the agenda was that Athens would provide financial aid to reconstruct the National Museum of Baghdad (see: The Museum of Baghdad, what's new?). The other point was plans to erect a statue of Alexander the Great in Kurdistan, northern Iraq. 

[National Museum Baghdad]

The foreign ministries of both Greece and Iraq agreed to honor the memory of Alexander by building a statue of Alexander in Mosul, near the ancient site of the Battle of Gaugamela, where King Darius (see: The Battle of Gaugamela) was defeated in 331 BC. 

It is remarkable to hear Iraq’s wish to celebrate the victory of Alexander over the Persian King Darius, which led to the demise of the Persian Empire that included Iraq as well. 

Athens vowed to help the Iraqi government recover thousands of artifacts looted from Baghdad’s National Museum after the American invasion in 2003. 

These mutual promises apparently went no further than good intentions by both parties, as mentioned during a Lecture by Andreas P. Parpas at the Cyprus Centre of Cultural Heritage in Nicosia on 25 April 2018. 

Since then, nothing more has been heard about this project. 

Meanwhile, looted and stolen artifacts are slowly returning to the National Museum of Baghdad. In 2010, 540 treasures were returned, and 638 objects were located in the office of Iraq’s Prime Minister. In 2012, 45 relics of Sumerian and Assyrian art were returned by Germany. The US also returned 17,000 looted artifacts in 2021. And in 2023, the FBI was involved in the recovery of a gold and ivory piece of furniture dated to 5,500 BC. Despite serious efforts, it is estimated that about 10,000 treasures from the Baghdad Museum are still missing. 

On the other hand, the US pledged almost $700,000 to restore the ancient city of Babylon that was damaged by the US troops using the site as a military base (see: Babylon, victim of war). 

Natural air-conditioning in antiquity

Air-coolers and air-conditioning are hot news these days when global temperatures are rising and we seek the comforting relief provided by modern technology. Little do we know about the solutions our ancestors were familiar with. 

Traveling through Iran in April/May, temperatures often rose to 40 degrees Celsius and above. I had heard that many cities managed to keep their houses and streets cool thanks to an efficient system of wind catchers, called badgirs. Today’s examples date back to the 14^th century, but the system existed in Achaemenid times, well before the arrival of Alexander in Persia. 

The city of Yazd on the Central Iranian Plateau is punctuated with some 700 of these strange towers, which, to the untrained eye, look very modern. They fit the city landscape but also seem out of place amidst parked cars and busy traffic. For centuries, the badgirs pull fresh air into buildings and houses, pushing the hot air out through large vertical slots. 

Depending on the prevailing winds and other weather conditions, the towers were designed differently. They could be taller or smaller, have only one opening, and no internal partition if the wind blows constantly from the same direction. When the wind direction is variable, the tower would be divided into vertical sections with openings to the sides pointing in multiple directions. In Yazd, all wind-catchers are four- or eight-sided. 

The Zoroastrian village of Cham near Yazd proudly displays its badgers. Near the Towers of Silence, we also find them surrounding the water cistern. In Zoroastrian belief, earth, fire, and water are holy elements that should not be polluted by their dead. For that reason, they placed their remains on a Tower of Silence where vultures could pick the bodies clean.

Typically, like so many cities in desert areas, houses are built closely together with small windows away from the sun along narrow streets. In Iran, these alleys are called sabats, partially or entirely covered with a series of arches for protection from the sun. 

The wind towers in Iran were also extended to be used as a refrigerating device. That’s why we often see them standing like sentinels around traditional water reservoirs capable of cooling the water to near-freezing temperatures in summer. 

Wind-catchers are not limited to Yazd or Iran but were also present in Egypt and elsewhere in North Africa, the UAE, West Asia, and India.

This makes one wonder why, in today’s world, it is so difficult to develop a free and carbon-zero solution to replace expensive air-conditioners. I agree that our cities are not fit to build these low-tech installations, but beach resorts and countryside settlements could very well profit from our forefathers’ invention.

An alabaster bust of Alexander

Alexandria, founded by Alexander in 333 BC, remains largely hidden under the modern city. Occasional excavations occur, mostly in the Al-Shatby suburb, which was occupied from the 2nd century BC to the 4th century AD. This neighborhood is perhaps better known as the Shallalat Gardens, where parts of the ancient city walls and a statue of Alexander were recently discovered (see: Magnificent Alexander statue found in Alexandria). It is believed that the Royal Quarters were located underneath these Gardens.

The Al-Shatby neighborhood was an ancient residential and commercial zone, a trade center during Ptolemaic rule. It held a lively market selling amphorae, pottery, and plates produced locally. The workshops were specialized in creating statues, statuettes, and amulets for the warriors. 

[Credit: Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities]

The place made headlines recently when an alabaster bust of Alexander was unearthed. Alabaster was highly esteemed in ancient Egypt, where it was used for various sacred and sepulchral objects. The picture of the Alexander bust looks promising, but no information about its size or the context in which it was found. Since molds for statues in his effigy are mentioned in the same context in the article by Ancient Origins, we might assume archaeologists are pointing toward local workshops. 

Studies revealed a main road (perhaps the Canopic Road?) and adjacent streets connected to a sewage system. A sophisticated network of wells was discovered; also, water tanks were used to collect and store rain, floodwater, and groundwater to be used in case of droughts. 

So far, the main discovery is the necropolis complex holding tombs of people who migrated from Greece, Macedonia, Crete, and Asia Minor. A vast underground multi-chambered complex has been exposed with a large Hypogeum A, and two smaller Hypogeums. Hypogeum A yielded many sculptures, coins, glass artifacts, and plenty of pottery, especially a type of hydria (water jar with two opposite horizontal handles and one vertical one) typical for Alexandria. This is the city’s oldest archaeological site, dating back to the late 4^th-3^rd century BC. 

It remains extremely difficult to get a comprehensive overview of Alexandria as built by Ptolemy I Soter and his successors. The Great Library is best known from literary descriptions (see: Alexandria, the first Renaissance); the same applies to the famous Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (see: Not all Seven Wonders of the World are the same).

Aristotle/Alexander

No doubt, all fans and admirers of Alexander will look forward to attending this play at the Getty Villa in Malibu, California. This is how Getty promotes 

Aristotle/Alexander:

When star philosopher Aristotle accepts the coveted position of court tutor for an adolescent Alexander the Great, an intellectual battle of wits between teacher and student collides with high stakes Hellenistic realpolitik bearing life and death consequences. Ancient Greece would never be the same.

Weekends through May 10th

8pm Saturdays; 3pm Sundays

Company of Angels Theater, Boyle Heights

Witness the world premiere of Aristotle/Alexander, a play workshopped at the Getty Villa Theater Lab in 2024. Chronicling the story of Aristotle and a young Alexander the Great’s intellectual battle of wits, Noho Arts describes the new play as “utterly sublime” and “disturbingly relevant.”

Written and directed by Alex Lyras.

*Code GETTY50 is valid for 50% off each ticket throughout the run.

Learn more and purchase tickets

A Greek theatre, a first in the Ionian Islands

 As a matter of course, we expect about every Greek city to have a theater. This is, however, not the case on the Greek islands – until now. 

The Ionian island of Lefkada, situated along the west coast of Greece, lies about halfway between Corfu (ancient Corcyra) and Patras and has surprised every archaeologist with the presence of a large theater. 

In the 7^th century BC, many Corinthians set off to establish new colonies, such as Syracuse in Sicily, and some settled in Lefkada. This island is best known for its white cliffs, where the poetess Sappho jumped to her death in despair rather than facing an impossible love. 

Thanks to its strategic position along busy maritime routes, the city-state reached high cultural and economic prosperity. Archaeological research exposed sections of the city wall, residential structures, the harbor, and, more recently, remains of a theater on the northeastern slope of Koulmos Hill. 

[Picture from Greece Is]

Excavations started seriously in 2017, and soon the entire theater was exposed. It was established that it was built in the 4^th century BC and consisted of 21 rows of seats arranged around the orchestra. Originally, it could seat 3,500 spectators, but later extensions created space for over 10,000 visitors as more seats were added above an inserted diazoma. 

The latest excavation gave a good insight into the preserved sections of retaining walls (north and south), the seating area, the orchestra, and the stage itself. Many decorative elements have been revealed, as well as three beautifully carved thrones decorated with lion legs, dolphins, birds, sirens, and more. These were intended for priests or other city officials.

The fate of the theater was closely tied to that of Lefkada, which gradually declined in Roman times. As the city was abandoned at the end of antiquity, the theater’s stones were reused for later constructions elsewhere.