The harbor of Roman Naples uncovered

Metro works are ongoing in many larger cities all over Europe and Naples (Napoli) in Italy is one of them. Here archaeologists found the port of Roman Neapolis, now located three meters deep and some 200 meters inland.

The history of Naples goes back at least four thousand years but when it became part of Magna Graecia in the 6^th century BC, it gained in importance and thrived for almost one thousand years. At some time during the 5^th century AD, however, the harbor started to silt up and it is exactly this sand and mud that has preserved the wood of the ships that were uncovered during the subway constructions.

[Submerged ships. Photo Riccardo Siano from Napoli Reppublica] 

The archaeological team has exposed the hulls of two 11 meters long Roman ships from the 1^st century AD and partial remains of five others. In the process, they recovered many personal belongings in the process like shoes, tools, dice, baskets, and ropes.

The only way to preserve these vessels was to move them to a safe location in the suburb of nearby Piscinola. Here all the finds from the metro works are being stored and carefully labeled. The ships occupy a temperature-controlled space of their own as they are kept submerged in cold water that is renewed every two weeks. The smallest vessel from Neapolis has been selected for restoration at the Central Institute of Rome.

Besides the harbor, excavations have enabled to locate the exceptional temple complex that underscores the importance of the Isolympic Games instituted by Emperor Augustus in the year 2 AD. Other parts of the construction areas have yielded marble friezes and capitals, terracotta artifacts, and simple everyday objects like combs, bowls, bags, and spoons – all from Greek and Roman times. But the successive layers also revealed previously unknown aspects from medieval, Byzantine, Norman, and Angevin times which all contribute to the rich history of Naples.

The next question is obviously what to do with the 3.3 million artifacts that have so far been accumulated in the Piscinola warehouse and how to make the remarkable ship remains accessible to the general public. This is a delicate matter as far as logistics are concerned and also financially. One of the options is to incorporate some of the objects into the metro stations proper, as has been done in Athens, for instance.

Traces of Philip III Arrhidaeus in Egypt

As strange as it may seem, archaeologists have discovered several inscriptions praising Pharaoh Arrhideus/Philip III and the crocodile god of the Nile, Sobek.

Since Alexander the Great had not made any arrangements for his succession, the Macedonian army elected his half-brother to be their new king. As we know, the succession of Alexander led to many years of lengthy bickering and fights among his generals, the Diadochi, turning into hopeless wars that lasted for nearly forty years.

Arrhideus/Philip III was only king in name since he was retarded and hence unfit to rule Alexander’s huge empire. Not much literature or artwork is known, and traces of his “rule” are scant.

Strangely enough, a relief showing the face of Pharaoh Arrhideus/Philip III has been discovered at the unusual double temple of  Kom Ombo dedicated to the god Sobek, the god of fertility, and the falcon god Haroeris. The archaeologists also found his name inscribed in hieroglyphs on an 83 x 55 cm slab.

Although the temple is resting on a much older structure, the remains we know today, with its twin entrances and symmetrical layout was, probably started by Ptolemy VI. The Ptolemys remained present over the centuries as we also find a fine relief of Ptolemy XII, the father of the famous Cleopatra VII.

Another trace of Arrhideus/Philip III is found in the Temple of Amun at Karnak. Besides a peristyle court of Thutmosis III, it contains a barque sanctuary filled with his granite naos. This could be the picture Olaf Kaper showed during his lecture in 2010 (see: Alexander the Great in Egypt. Lecture of 24 November 2010).

The island of Samothrace, finally, proudly displays a joint dedication of Arrhideus/Philip III and Alexander IV. It was part of a marble Doric building that carried the inscription “King Philip [and] Alexander to the Great Gods,” a confirmation that both the son of Alexander the Great and his half-brother “officially” ruled on equal terms (see: A Dedication of Philip III Arrhidaeus and Alexander IV).

[Top picture: Philip III as pharaoh in Karnak is from Wikipedia]

[Bottom picture: Sanctuary of Philip III from Egypt Museum]

A unique opportunity to witness Palmyra’s wealth

Those who are closely interested in the art that blossomed in Palmyra from the first to the third century AD are in for a treat at the newly rearranged Getty Villa in Malibu, California.

[The Beauty of Palmyra, 190-210 AD. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen]

The Getty Villa opened on Wednesday 18 April 2018 with a chronological instead of thematic display of its precious artwork. At the same time, they will present a typical funerary sculpture from the collections of the Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen together with Getty’s own reliefs and photographs related to the once so wealthy city of Palmyra in Syria (see: The Glorious Days of Palmyra).

What started as a mere caravan stop-over became a major crossroad between the Roman and Parthian empires in which Queen Zenobia played an unrivaled role (see: The Dream of the Queen of Palmyra).

For the aficionados, remember that the entrance to this museum is free but that advance entry tickets are required (click here). This special exhibition will run until 27 May 2019 under the title Palmyra: Loss and Remembrance.

A Median or Achaemenid rock-cut tomb in Iraqi Kurdistan

Iraq is rarely in the news when it comes to archaeology but here is an exception: a rock-tomb that has been spotted some 65 kilometers northwest of Sulaymaniyah. This modern Iraqi city in turn lies roughly 220 km to the northwest of the Bisutun Relief in Iran. In antiquity, both Iraq and Iran were in Persia. As always, it is a small world.

It is heartwarming, to say the least, to hear that this tomb of Ashkawt-i Qizqapan has been investigated and, what’s more, that its façade has been restored and even copied to find a place of honor at the entrance of the Sulaymaniyah Museum. So far, only two examples of rock-cut tombs have been listed in Iraq and this is one of them and its history is shrouded in mystery.

The entrance to the tomb lies approximately eight meters above ground level and the most striking element to the visitor are the two ionic inspired columns that are supporting an awning-like imitation wooden roof. The entrance wall has been filled with a number of reliefs. High up are three divine emblems. The right one shows an otherwise unknown star-bust that suggests the goddess Ishtar-Anahita or Artemis. The central emblem is round as well and appears to rest on a lunar crescent supporting a seated figure which may represent the moon god, Sin. The emblem on the far left brings Ahura Mazda to mind set on a square background. Yet this figure has two pairs of wings, each set being different in shape and size which may refer to Mithras, the upper god of the Medes.

The analysis of the central relief located between the columns raises other questions. We see two men facing each other over a stepped altar holding a double-convex Parthian-like bow. They wear a similar kind of headdress in Median style and have their mouth covered in order to protect the sacred fire burning on the altar.

According to the contribution made by Dr Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin on location and published in Ancient History Encyclopedia in January 2018, the following tentative conclusions were drawn: the depicted scene shows King Alyattes of Lydia who reigned from 610 till 560 BC on the right and the Median King Cyaxares who reigned from 625 till 585 BC on the left as they manifest the end of their war. Mediator in this conflict was King Nabonidus of Neo-Babylonia as represented by the crescent moon. The divine emblem on the upper right corner is the Lydian goddess Artemis who accompanied Alyattes whereas Ahuramazda blesses Cyaxares.

Under the central relief is a doorway that leads into three separate burial chambers. All three graves have been dug out from the floor and were apparently covered with a now missing lid. However, no bones or artifacts have been found inside the graves and the walls of these chambers are void of any inscription or decoration.

Well, no solid conclusion can be drawn from the above analysis that leans towards labeling these tombs as Median and dating them to 600-550 BC. Other scholars are more inclined to conclude that the style of the reliefs is Achaemenid and generally date the tombs to the second half of the 6^th or the 5^th century BC. Nothing is certain as yet since no other excavations have been carried out in the region and this rock-cut tomb simply cannot stand on its own.

[Pictures are from Ancient History Encyclopedia in January 2018]

Restoration of the theatre in Perge

Perge, less than twenty kilometers northeast of Antalya is one of the must-see places of Pamphylia. Till now, unfortunately the grand theater that rises alongside the road to the site of Perge remained of limits in spite of the most promising statues that were taken from the theater to the Museum of Archaeology in Antalya.

In spite of the excavations carried out in the 1980s and 1990s, the theater remained off limits as it was dangerous to approach the weak and crumbling walls. It was even very difficult and almost impossible to simply walk around its outer limits because of the luxuriant and dense bushes that grows around it.

The restoration plans sounds very promising as the overall local economy will benefit from it now that the number of visitors to Perge have drastically decreased during the last decennium.

The Perge theater is a typical Roman construction counting 19 tiers of seats in its lower part and 23 tiers in the upper section. Most of the stage is still standing and its restoration would certain help to mentally place the statues from the museum back into their appropriate niches. As is so often the case, the theater has been adapted to host animal and gladiator fights.

Let’s hope that restoration work will start soon for the theater will certainly contribute to the beauty of the site and the wealth Perge knew in its heyday. We should not forget that this is where the bigger than life-size statue of Alexander the Great (now in the museum) once stood in all its glory!

The Virtues of War by Steven Pressfield

The Virtues of War (ISBN 9780553382051) by Steven Pressfield is quite an unorthodox book. As opposed to so many history or fiction books, including novels, about Alexander, this one lets Alexander speak for himself – a very challenging enterprise.

Steven Pressfield, whom I learned to appreciate in his novel The Afghan Campaign, clearly warns his readers in the introductory note that he does not follow history according to the strict reports but has arranged the events and facts to better suit his own interpretation, i.e., the true spirit of Alexander as he conceives it.

In this novel, Alexander is talking to Itanes, the younger brother of Roxane, who has joined his ranks to be taken into his close circle of Companions.

It is not a sentimental tale but a story told from the point of view of a general, a military leader who knows his men inside out. Alexander’s strategies and awareness of what happens around him in battle, without seeing how events unfold outside his narrow perimeter, are almost palpable. Far from being a monotonous monologue, Alexander shares not only his battle memories in facts and figures but also relates other key moments, of which there were many. He talks about his soldiers’ experiencing life in Babylon, the conspiracy of Philotas and the subsequent execution of his father Parmenion, the need to reshape his army facing guerrilla war in Bactria, and how by the time he reaches India, more than half of his Macedonian troops have been replaced by foreign entities. The character of Alexander that transpires is that of a king in all its complexity but also that of a man who realizes he is not perfect and often falls short. Besides, he is very well aware that the attitude and mindset of people in the East are very different from that in Greece and that he inevitably has to adapt – something his marshals cannot comprehend.

Hephaistion is well portrayed, always appearing at Alexander’s side. Historians generally tone down his presence simply because ancient writers have ignored him for whatever reason (perhaps his story was not juicy enough?). The description of the other commanders like Parmenion, Craterus, Black Cleitus, Ptolemy, Peucestas, Seleucos, Philotas, and dozens of others is very recognizable.

King Philip II of Macedonia remains Alexander’s great role model throughout the story as young Alexander kept his eyes open and clearly understood his father’s policy and tactics. The influence of Olympias, which is often impressed on the character of Alexander, is absent. This is a man’s world.

As in The Afghan Campaign, I marvel at Steven Pressfield’s knowledge of the military and the mindset of the troops in the field and on the march. Looking him up on Wikipedia, I read that his book Gates of Fire (which I have not read yet) is being taught at West Point, the U.S. Naval Academy, and the Marine Corps Basic School at Quantico. He is a man to my heart, knowing that Alexander’s Battle of Gaugamela is still teaching material at West Point!

I honestly don’t understand why this book is being underrated. This is not just another history of Alexander the Great but a very worthwhile attempt to crawl inside his mind and under his skin. Steven Pressfield made a superb effort to understand how the mind of a great man works. Since Alexander falls within the category of the geniuses, who among us dares criticize when the author lets a genius speak?

Alexander and Citrus fruits

About four years ago, I posted a blog about citrus fruit being introduced to the West by the soldiers of Alexander the Great – a most gratifying idea (see: What Alexander did for us). Yet a very recent article published by Dr Dafna Langgut, head of the Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Ancient Environments at the Institute of Archaeology at Tel Aviv University in ASOR is shedding a scientific light on the matter.

[Picture from Citrus Trees]

According to this study, citrus originates in Southeast Asia where it was cultivated as early as 2,000 BC. Eventually the fruit arrived in Persia and from there reached the eastern Mediterranean in the 5^th-4^th century BC, so well before Alexander the Great travelled through the area.

First to arrive was the citron (citrus medica), that had a thick rind and a small dry pulp as pictured in my abovementioned blog. The citron and the lemon (citrus limon, a crossing of the citron and the bitter orange) travelled to the western Mediterranean and made their way to the gardens of the wealthy Romans living around Rome and Mount Vesuvius in the 3^rd-2^nd century BC. The fruits were appreciated for their healing powers, their pleasant odor, and of course, for their rarity since only the rich could afford such luxury.

In time, limes, sour or bitter oranges, and pummelo (a variety of grapefruit) were added to the varieties and all spread westwards thanks to the Muslim conquests of Sicily and Spain. Our sweet orange was a latecomer as we had to wait for it till the 15^th century, and the mandarin was only introduced in the early 19^th century.

Well, so much for the history of citrus fruits but it is clear the it was known to the Persians when Alexander conquered their Empire. He must have been confronted with some variety of citrus as soon as he marched along the eastern basin of the Mediterranean but that is something we will never know.

A treat for those who love maps: Pompeii

Thanks to the wonders of modern technology, we can now have a look at ancient Pompeii set in today’s town. Its layout looks amazingly modern.

This Pompeii Bibliography and Mapping Project (PBMP) is pure magic. To quote their explanation on the use of these maps: 

You can start to explore Pompeii in the map embedded below, or go to the full site for more space and options. If you want to customize the map or make a presentation from it, sign in to / sign up for your ArcGIS Online account and save a copy to your own webspace. The link is at the upper right of the embedded map page. Below the map is additional information about the files, the information they contain, and their display.

Have fun!

The fame of elusive Pelusium

When in 333 BC, Alexander took possession of Pelusium, situated on a branch of the Nile that has shifted since, it was a wealthy settlement as it contributed to his treasury with 800 talents (20 tons of silver and gold). It was his first stop in Egypt, as it was for all conquering armies before and after him.

Pelusium was not only the point of entry for invaders but also the departure point for Egyptian expeditions to Asia. In short, it was a place of substantial strategic importance and the second port of Egypt after Alexandria, as it served as a transit station for the goods coming from and going to the lands around the Red Sea.

Yet, despite its fame and importance in antiquity and the many sources, among which Herodotus, Polybius, Diodorus, Curtius Rufus, Arrian, Strabo, etc., the site of Pelusium, associated with modern Tell el-Farama has never been properly excavated. Antique sources describe the city as a bustling harbor with magazines and customs offices trading in salt, textiles, pottery, and fish. On the site, which is believed to be almost six kilometers long, we find the remains of a fortress and marble columns from a possible Roman Theater that closely resembles the one in Alexandria. There are remains of several necropolises, a hippodrome, fish tanks for garum, Roman baths with mosaics from the 3^rd century AD, a stadium, many temples, and even a military installation.

However, the little we know about Pelusium is now threatened by the construction plans for a massive canal through the northern part of the Sinai Desert. This waterway is meant to bring fresh water to the city of El Arish, 60 kilometers from the border with Israel. Unfortunately, in that part of the world, nothing is simple. As early as 1991, archaeologists launched a project to survey the course of this canal to pinpoint any site that may be worth recovering before being destroyed by the dig works or, if possible, divert the route to save vast remains. It is no surprise that by 2010, both the canal and the archaeological project have been put on hold.

It seems that ancient Pelusium will not soon resuscitate from its ruins.

[Pictures from Egypt Today]

Cheesecake, Olympian style

Even in antiquity, appropriate nutrition was part of the Olympic Games as the competitors expected that it would improve their performances. After their strenuous efforts, however, they felt – like our modern athletes – that they deserved some indulgence. One of these was what we would call nowadays, a cheesecake, i.e. a kind of flour cake layered with cheese and honey, the best of which came from Attica.

[Picture from the Quarzy Newsletter of Feb 2018]

As early as 250 BC, Archestratus of Gela wrote a gastronomic guide “Life of Luxury”. Unfortunately only fragments of his book have survived but one such scrap is recommending the cheesecake made in Athens as being the best, although the recipe is not being disclosed.

As always, the Romans were keen to copy the Greeks, including their cheesecake recipe which Cato the Elder in 160 BC included in his “De Agri Cultura” in five different variations. There was the vaillum, a sweet version and a savory one called libum often made as an offering to the gods. Both types were made with a simple mixture of flour and cheese that could be eaten with a spoon.

A fancier version was the placenta cake, alternating layers of dough, cheese, and honey and spiced with bay leaves. Occasionally this cake was sprinkled with black poppy seeds. Out of curiosity, we may want to experiment and create this placenta cake according to Cato’s original recipe:

Shape the placenta as follows: place a single row of tracta [a type of dough] along the whole length of the base dough. This is then covered with the mixture [cheese and honey] from the mortar. Place another row of tracta on top and go on doing so until all the cheese and honey have been used up. Finish with a layer of tracta…place the placenta in the oven and put a preheated lid on top of it. (with thanks to the Quarzy Newsletter of Feb 2018).