Damned dams, once again

On several occasions, I brought up the matter of the disastrous consequences of flooding our history through the construction of dams on major rivers. I have developed the pros and cons in earlier blogs (see: Zeugma, border town along the Euphrates River; My heart is bleeding for Allianoi; and Damned Dams). This is, however, only the very tip of the iceberg and it is very sad that so little is done to bring this matter of utmost importance for the preservation of our cultural heritage to the attention of the general public.

Perchance I found an incredibly interesting presentation on YouTube that clearly illustrates the catastrophic consequences of these dam-building projects using Turkey’s three main dams on the Euphrates River. The problem, however, is not limited to Turkey alone but known all over the Near East.

Although we often believe that much of the city of Zeugma has been rescued and moved to the Museum in Gaziantep, the truth is that only an infinite part of this ancient city has been excavated - most of it is drowned forever. More dramatic is the city of Samsat on the Euphrates founded in the 7th millennium BC and flooded without merci in 1989 when the Ataturk Dam was completed.

This documentary, unfortunately, has not been seen by the number of visitors one would and should expect for such a sensitive and important subject. It is quite amazing – and certainly an eye opener – to see all the dots on the maps where archaeological sites have simply disappeared forever. The crimes of IS received far more attention and indignation around the world than the flooding of our ancestral roots on such a large scale.

The documentary was created by the UNIBO team led by Nicolò Marchetti in the frame of the 2015-2018 EU-funded JPI project "Heritage and Threat".

Please, do visit this site and show your appreciation by clicking on the Thumbs Up!

Many ancient shipwrecks found in the Greek waters

The twenty islands of Fourni in the Eastern Aegean are just one of so many clusters that can be found is those waters. It seems that the narrow passage between the islands create sudden windstorms and choppy waves which would catch many a pilot off guard – hence the great number of wrecks that have been found together.

A first assessment was made last year (see: The surprises of underwater archaeology) and at the end of this year's diving season the number of shipwrecks in the area has risen to 58.

[Credit: Vassilis Mentogiannis/Hellenic Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities/via Reuters]

The fact that they mainly carried amphorae supports the image of intense sea traffic along the coast of Asia Minor.It is difficult to separate the wrecks of those ships that actually crashed on the rocks and those that sank in the stormy weather. Some of them are in pristine condition because they lay at a depth of 40-60 meters. All the relics stranded above the 40-meter level either fell apart or have been looted in the past.

It is very inspiring to learn that the research team of archaeologists, divers, and conservators envisage creating a local museum on the main island Fourni to house their finds. Let’s hope this will work out properly.

Alexander bust to be returned to Rome

At some time before 1959, a head of Alexander the Great found during the excavations of the Forum Romanum in Rome in the early 1900's was stolen from the Forense Museum in that city.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network]

The head travelled all across Europe and eventually made its way to New York. The Alan Safani Gallery in Manhattan had purchased it in 2017 from a London gallery. The transaction took place in good faith based on the documentation about the provenance of the bust.

The Manhattan District Attorney’s Office investigating looted antiquities, however, traced this head as it lacked the kind of documentation that normally travels with artifacts leaving Italy. They found that it was sold at auction by Sotheby’s in 1974 and again in 2011. This kind of pattern seems to be typical for looted items as they “disappear” from the country of origin and reappear several years later in another country without the proper supporting paperwork. The ensuing questionable sale is meant to create some form of ownership history.

Although this Alexander head has been dated to early 300 BC, i.e. not so long after his death in 323 BC, it is not one of the finest examples. Anyway, let’s hope that it will soon find a well deserved place in the rich collection of one of Rome’s famed museums.

What is the Peraia of Samothrace?

The Peraia of Samothrace translates as “the land opposite Samothrace” and refers to a series of colonies founded by Samothrace on the mainland north of the island, in this case along the coastline of Greece’s province of Thrace and more precisely between the Hebrus River and Mount Ismaros. It includes several settlements such as Cape Serreion, Drys, Sale, Zone, Mesembria, and Makri, founded from the 6^th century BC onward, whereas Tempira and Charakoma date from Roman times. Not all of these towns have been located or excavated, meaning we are moving in rather uncharted territory.

The area is interesting, however, because it was conquered by Philip II of Macedonia when he prepared his invasion of Asia. This allowed Alexander to march unopposed through this part of Thracia when he set out to cross the Hellespont after his father’s assassination.

Zone, which for some time was thought to be Mesimvria as described by Herodotus, is among the most significant towns that reached its peak during the 5^th-4^th century BC. Its decline set in after Alexander’s death with the constant Macedonian wars, until it became part of the Roman Empire, after which the city was abandoned during the 5^th century AD. Today, this archaeological site goes by the double name of Zone-Mesembria.

Excavations have brought to light Zone’s city walls as well as the smaller Hellenistic walls from that period when the city had shrunk to a square area in the southwest corner. Besides private houses and streets following the Hippodamian plan, the two most remarkable buildings are the Temple of Apollo and the House of the Amphorae.

Not much of the temple from the 6^th century BC is left standing. It measures 15 x 9 meters with a small pronaos and a cella resting on a three-stepped crepis. It has been established that it stood inside a larger complex (35 x 45 meters) with a paved courtyard and surrounded by a Stoa. The recent discovery of about 300 potsherds in and around this Temple of Apollo, however, makes it one of the most important discoveries because these potsherds carried inscriptions in Thracian. The language of the Thracians, which is thought to be closely related to Greek and uses Greek characters, is not known and has not yet been deciphered. Archaeologists have their work cut out for this is the largest collection of Thracian writings ever found.

The House of the Amphorae contains another unique treasure: a puzzling floor made from 188 amphorae turned upside down. They were aligned in such a way that all the pointed bottoms stood at the same level, notwithstanding the size of each amphora. This construction, dating from as early as the 6^th-5^th century BC, represents a rare method to protect the earthen floor against the dampness of the underlying soil. It sounds unbelievable that people some 2,500 years ago knew how to avoid groundwater destroying the foundations and floors of their residences – not to mention the problem with arthritis and rheumatism! The remains of a wide water gutter next to the house clearly illustrate the humidity problem.

In at least two locations, we can find remains of old wine presses. These were simple affairs using a lid on a huge jar or a slab above a quarried rectangular pit riddled with holes. The process was still known in the last century when people used to trample the grapes with their feet, squeezing the juice that would drip into the container underneath as the pulp would stay on top of the lid.

The fortification walls of Zone are interesting elements as well. They were reinforced by towers, and a close look at the walls reveals how different sections were built using different techniques – probably rebuilt and reinforced over time. The West Gate, the only entrance to the city, has also been found and cleared.

Zone is beyond doubt a town like many in southeastern Thrace, and its excavation has shed light on the daily life of its inhabitants from the Classical era to Hellenistic and even Roman times. The town provides an excellent insight into its wealth with the large houses, wine production centers, and kilns. This is not surprising given that the country was located on important communication routes (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara). In an earlier blog about the site of Halka Bunar in Bulgaria (see: Macedonia of Philip was also part of Bulgaria), I mentioned the roads that ran from the western Balkans to the coast of the Black Sea and Byzantium in the east, passing through Serdica and Philippopolis, and from Abdera and Mesembria across the Rhodope Mountains all the way to Seuthopolis.

Today, this part of the world has lost its importance and seems to regress into the oblivion of time. With civilizations rising and falling, roads and cities with their cultural significance and economic wealth inevitably leave their imprint. We only have to make the effort to look for it.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Zone-Mesembria]

After Tillya Tepe, a gold treasure from Eastern Kazakhstan

The remote Tarbagatai Mountains in eastern Kazakhstan have kept their secret for 2,800 years, hiding a stash of “royal gold” and other precious items inside a burial mound.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network (Credit: Oleg Belyalov-east2west news])

Some of these artifacts show close resemblance to the treasures recovered from Tillya Tepe in nearby Afghanistan which travelled around the world since the destruction of the Kabul Museum (see: Bactrian Gold, the Hidden Treasures from the Museum of Kabul).

This time, however, the treasure trove seems to belong to the Saka people – a branch of the Scythians - who lived in Central Asia around the 8^th century BC. The highly skilled gold beads meant to be sewn on clothes as well as gold plates with rivets, chains, earrings and a necklace inlaid with precious stones testify of exceptional craftsmanship. Because of the finesse of the 3,000 golden artifacts, the find is believed to belong to royalty or some prestigious people, probably a couple.

The tumulus site was not found entirely unlooted and it seems that even in the days of Peter the Great part of the treasure has been removed. Excavations started two years ago but the grave of the wealthy man and woman has not yet been opened. Let’s hope no illegal treasure hunters will destroy this tomb so that professional archaeologists can complete the meticulous job they started.

The area on the Eleke Sazy Plateau counts some 200 tumuli most of which were robbed over the centuries. Gold always had and still has a magic attraction.

An update on the tomb of King Hecatomnos

Back in 2010, the discovery of the monumental sarcophagus belonging to King Hecatomnos made headlines due to illegal digging in the area of Milas, Mylasa in antiquity (see: Sensational archaeological find near Milas). 

Nothing much has been heard since as the standard procedure implies closer study, cleaning, restoration, and thorough analysis – that is till now. 

This find is important for two reasons. Firstly, Hecatomnos is the father of King Mausolos, who built the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. Secondly, the tomb of Hecatomnos is found in Mylasa, which was the capital of Caria in his days. Besides, this tomb allows historians and archaeologists to establish a continuity in the architecture and art of Caria before the construction of Mausolos’ Mausoleum. Although he ruled (391 - 377 BC) as satrap over Caria loyal to the Persian king Artaxerxes II, Hecatomnos was fascinated by the Greek culture and respected the religious beliefs of his people. 

The mausoleum of King Hecatomnos was built not unlike the concept used a few years later by his son in Halicarnassus, his new capital of Caria. That does not really come as a surprise since one of the architects for both mausoleums built in the center of the respective capital cities was Piteos.

Unfortunately, the available information does not provide a clear image of the excavation site or the mausoleum itself. The crepidoma with seven steps is being mentioned as running around the entire perimeter of the mausoleum. Still, even the 3D reconstruction is not very helpful to get a comprehensive picture. 

Apparently, the mausoleum stood on top of the stairs of the crepidoma. The building gave access to an underground burial space where the impressive sarcophagus was discovered. It is being mentioned in the article by the Daily Sabagh that the treasure hunters damaged the gold leaf paintings and the sarcophagus paintings inside the tombs (plural?) and that the images on the murals are related to Hecatomnos. It would have been very enlightening to have some photograph or drawing of the layout to imagine what the site looks like. The article also mentions a well-preserved entrance gate and plans to create an open-air museum for visitors to access the tomb.

On the positive side, it may be noted that in 2014 a stela carrying the longest poem from the Classic era was discovered on the site (see: Precious stela with the longest poem from Classical Greece). In 2017, a gold crown surfaced in Scotland said to belong to Hecatomnos. It has been returned to Turkey.

[The picture of the tomb is from the Daily Sabagh. The 3D drawing can be found in an interesting article written by Anna Frascari. The picture of the gold crown is from Archaeology News Network]

Achaemenid Palace found in Northern Turkey

It is still early days but it appears that remains of an Achaemenid Palace are surfacing from excavations at the Oluz Mound near Amasya which lies some 125 km south of Samsun.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network]

The columns and the throne chamber, probably part of a reception chamber indicate a Persian origin and have been dated to 450 BC. The site measuring 280x260 meters lies on top of Oluz Mound rising fifteen meters above the plain level.

Interestingly, the site shows presence of earlier settlements belonging to the Anatolian Iron Age and the Hittite period based on a bull figurine recovered during the excavations. Archaeologists have established that there is a large Hittite city underneath the Persian remain and they suppose this could be Shanovhitta.

So far, six columns from the prospective palace have been unearthed but that is far too little to establish a clear plan of the building. We will have to wait the outcome of further digging on this site for more tangible details.

Importance of the Meander River (western Turkey)

The River Meander in Asia Minor played an important role in the history of Miletus and Priene because its large alluvial deposits completely changed the landscape. Miletus in particular had four harbors on the Gulf of the Aegean Sea but with time they silted up and even the Island of Lade has been entirely integrated into the flat alluvial plain. (see: Miletus, Alexander’s first siege in Asia). Part of the water body still exists today but is cut off from the Aegean by the deposits and goes by the name of Lake Bafa.

[Picture from Hurriyet Daily News]

The Meander, modern Menderes River, is 550 km long and truly meanders through southwestern Turkey, irrigating farmlands and carrying industrial waste mainly from juice factories.

An alarming article has been published in the Hurryiet Daily News stating that the Meander is the country’s third most polluted river. For many years, experts have warned about this situation and are once again calling for an intervention in order to avoid environmental disasters since human health is in danger as well.

At its source near Dinar, the water is crystal clear and many species of birds and fish thrive but once it enters the province of Uşak where leather is treated on an industrial scale the water changes color, and the smell becomes unbearable the further you go downstream. There is a ban on fishing in these tainted waters and it has been established that some 1.5 million trout have been killed in the process. Entering the village of Balata, the water is as black as coal and smells of rotten animal corpses. At the mouth of the river, fish die by the thousands every week.

It is terribly sad that such a proud river from antiquity has been mistreated by successive civilizations making it unfit not only for agricultural irrigation but mainly for drinking. Fish and birds are dying but the rate of human death is much higher for those living along the river banks. A true disaster for mankind.

Over centuries, the Meander River has been the lifeline on which people could rely and that is no longer the case.

It appears that the Meander is not an isolated case. In another article, the Hurried Daily News reveals that 79% of Turkey’s freshwater bodies are polluted. That is particularly true for the western coast of Turkey (provinces of Muğla and Izmir) and also for Istanbul.

Tel-Gomel - in other words, Gaugamela

It is all in the name but it needs to be proved. Linguistically, Gaugamela has already been associated by scholars and archaeologists with Tel Gomel or Gammagara or Gir-e Gomel or Gogomel located some fifty kilometers northwest of Arbil or Erbil, the capital of modern Kurdistan, Iraq. Excavations at Erbil have been carried out since 2015 (see: Arbela, near the Battlefield of Gaugamela) and now it is the turn of Tel Gomel.

[View of Tel Gomel, perhaps the site of the battle of Gaugamela [Credit Terra di Ninive]

The Kurdish and Italian archaeologists are very eager to substantiate this name- link through new analysis on the spot now that more peaceful times in Iraq seem to allow them to work on the terrain. So far, they were able to confirm that the site was continuously inhabited from the Neolithic Period onward.

From what has transpired so far, Tel Gomel was a necropolis used by the people of Gaugamela that yielded vessels containing offerings for the dead. The cemetery was already used by the Assyrians but at a lower level monumental graves from 1700-1550 BC have been unearthed. Among these a brick grave with a vaulted burial chamber is of particular interest. Digging deeper, archaeologists uncovered an even older cemetery dating from 2600-2300 BC.

Beyond this, they also scrutinized the layers belonging to the period running from 2000 BC to the Parthian occupation in 300 AD, but no mention has been made of Alexander’s time.

At this stage, it is not clear in how far this research is centered on Tel Gomel itself or on the surrounding plain which is assumed to be the battlefield where Alexander defeated the Persian King Darius in 331 BC. What’s more, it is most improbable to find any Macedonian grave in the city’s cemeteries for they would have buried their dead according to their own practices and rites. 

Excavations will resume in 2019. Wait and see.

Alexandre le Grand by Gustave Droysen

This specific book, Alexandre le Grand by Gustave Droysen (ISBN 2-87027-077-1), is not much known among the admirers of Alexander the Great and certainly not to the English speaking public.

As a native of Treptow, now part of Poland, Gustave Droysen wrote his book in 1833 in German but we had to wait a full century to find it translated into French. The translator is Jacques-Méchin, who later wrote a history of Alexander of his own, no doubt inspired by Droysen.  My edition dates from 1981 and has respected the author’s original style as much as possible.

The German text is written in one piece, meaning that it has no chapters or points of reference. For the reader’s comfort, Jacques-Méchin has divided the book into Four Books in his translation.

It is clear that Droysen’s history does not include historical and archaeological discoveries made since 1833, especially in countries like Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran and Mesopotamia in general. He rather faithfully follows ancient historians like Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch and Curtius, without imposing his own views or opinions on us. His history is coherent and reads like a novel rather than a historical account.

In Droysen’s day, this book was taken in high esteem but with today’s reader it obviously will fall short because of the new developments that occurred over the past two hundred years. Besides, we have to consider his perception of the world against the events of his days when Napoleon had put archaeology on the map during his campaign in Egypt, which in turn triggered later explorations of Greece and Anatolia by men like H. Schliemann, C. Fellows, T.A.B. Spratt and J. Burckhardt to name just a few. In any case, the book certainly makes a good read.