“To the strongest”

“To the strongest” are the last words Alexander pronounced on his deathbed in Babylon when pressed to name his successor. 

His Companions and generals were obviously panicking at the thought of being left behind so many miles away from Macedonia without their king to guide them. They desperately needed him. 

Ever since he became king in 336 BC Alexander had shown his commanders the way and led his men by example. He certainly did not expect to die at the age of 33 and not in his bed. How could he have foreseen to be incapacitated and unable to be his own self? 

The only person who had always been at his side and enjoyed his full confidence had died the previous year. Hephaistion had been officially appointed as his Chiliarch, his second in command. The sudden death of his dearest friend left him in total disarray and maddened by grief. He was truly alone at a time when he had to make the hardest decision of his life and elect a successor. “Who, Alexander? Tell us who!” are the words Oliver Stone put in the mouth of Ptolemy. How appropriate! 

“To the strongest” has often been understood as a weak and evading statement although, in reality, Alexander’s last words are one final proof of his genius! Had he not been so much afflicted by his illness and impaired by the high fever, he would have found the strength to elaborate a solution to the Succession with his close Companions. He would likely have appointed Perdiccas. Even so, Alexander’s decision may have lost its power two years onward and the commanders would have taken the matter into their own hands anyway.

Of course, everyone around the king’s deathbed still hoped to be appointed and hear his name called out. However, matters were not as straightforward as one might think. On the one hand, he had to name an heir since as King he needed a successor, and on the other hand, as commander in chief of his army, he had to appoint a capable military leader. 

At this point, his most experienced generals were Craterus and Perdiccas. Yet, Craterus was in Cilicia taking 10,000 veterans back to Macedonia with Alexander’s instructions to replace Antipater as Regent in Pella. Perdiccas was in Babylon and took the king’s succession in his hands. 

Roxane was pregnant but the child was not born yet and there was no guarantee it would be a boy. Alexander had never recognized Heracles, his son by Barsine. In any case, Roxane’s son and Heracles were too young to rule and the generals would have to choose a Regent pending their coming of age. The next best option was to push Arrhideus forward. He was Alexander’s simple-minded half-brother and not capable of becoming the de facto ruler. As a result, Perdiccas was elected Regent at the Partition of Babylon. 

This implied, however, that he would rule over Alexander’s Companions and generals. Perdiccas’ success was short-lived though and in 321 BC he was side-lined at Triparadeisus as the commanders decided to divide the kingdom among themselves. When Perdiccas escorted Alexander’s remains to be buried in Macedonia, Ptolemy high-jacked the mummified body and took it to Egypt. In a desperate attempt to recover his king’s remains, Perdiccas failed totally to march his men across the Nile. His losses were so excessive that his soldiers revolted and killed him. 

These were uncertain times for all the parties involved in the Succession Wars. They all had the ambition to rule over Alexander’s Empire and felt equally qualified to do so but none shared Alexander’s vision. Ultimately, they eliminated each other until the empire was divided between Ptolemy, Seleucos, Antigonus, and Cassander (see: Dividing the Spoils. The War for Alexander’s Empire by Robin Waterfield).

None of the great men who fought alongside Alexander for almost twelve years emerged as the strongest. They all had learned a lot but none could come close to Alexander’s charisma and exceptional genius.

A nearly perfect head of Zeus from Aphrodisias

Aphrodisias was known for its skillful sculptors throughout the Roman Empire. They took advantage of the nearby marble quarries that provided a typical medium-grained variation of the readily available material. Whoever drives through Asia Minor cannot miss the often colorful patches of marble quarries that dot the landscape.  

[Picture is from Arxaia Ellinika]

The many monuments excavated in Aphrodisias expose the great craftsmanship of its builders, embellished with reliefs and statues as testified by the latest find. 

It is a nearly perfect, colossal marble head of Zeus recovered about 50 meters west of the famous Temple of Aphrodite. It is 66 centimeters high, i.e., larger than life-size. The deep relief of the god’s hair and beard indicates that the head belongs to the 2^nd-3^rd century AD. At the same time, it makes Zeus’ face look more realistic. 

For the history of Aphrodisias, please read my earlier blog, Aphrodisias, the city of Aphrodite (Turkey).

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 3, the Pala d’Oro

Finding Alexander on the Pala d’Oro, the high altar of the Basilica San Marco in Venice is extremely difficult. 

[Pala d'Oro from Saint Mark's Basilica]

The golden altarpiece is a unique work of Byzantine enamel thought to be commissioned in 976. It acquired its present shape and size (three meters wide and two meters high) in 1345. It is made of gold and silver and counts 187 enamel plaques alternating with nearly 2,000 gemstones. 

The enamels in the top part of the Pala d’Oro are a group of six images representing the Life of Christ arranged around Archangel Michael. The bottom section tells the life of St Mark. A central picture of Christ Pantocrator is surrounded by the Four Evangelists and flanked by twelve Apostles, six on either side. 

Hardly noticeable in this opulence of precious metal and colorful stones are the small roundels and busts of Saints in the surrounding cornice. 

Of particular interest are the six enamel Byzantine plaques of 4.4 cm in diameter at the very bottom dated to the 11^th century. 

They depict three scenes of falconers on horseback (as in Eastern iconography): 

The stylized image of Alexander the Great elevatus ad aerem (lifted into the skies) as seen in the relief on the north façade of the Basilica San Marco in Venice:

The Tree of Life, a representation of the world, is seen as a paradisiacal garden. In the center is a tree surrounded by two serpents, but also the rivers that circumscribe the emerged lands. It is the world that, in the ancient and medieval versions of the Romance, Alexander sees from above, in the cosmic vision that concludes his mystical flight. 

And a bust of Emperor Constantine of which I have no picture. 

There is nothing to link these themes together except perhaps that the enamels were gifts from the Imperial Court of Constantinople to the Doge of Venice. They were interpreted as divine inspiration through the centuries from the days of Alexander the Great to the Roman Emperor Constantine, the Byzantine emperors, and finally to the Venetian Republic. 

The six roundels, in fact, summarize the vision of Doge Dandolo to make the Venetian Republic the true and rightful heir of the Roman Empire. It is not surprising that he turned the Pala d’Oro into a most splendid centerpiece of the Basilica. 

It is remarkable to find Alexander still present as Kosmokrator (Ruler of the World) some 1700 years after his untimely death. Even today, we greatly underestimate his wide contribution to mankind, which is way beyond his military and political achievements.

[Pictures of the enamel roundels are from Engramma]
[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 4, the Doge's Palace]

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 2, from Constantinople

Alexander is also featured on the north façade of the Basilica di San Marco in Venice. Here is a relief taken from Constantinople after the sack and looting by the Crusaders in 1204 together with the bronze horses that found a prominent place above the entrance to the Basilica. 

[Alexander lifted into the skies – from Engramma]

Looking at the photograph in the article published by Engramma, my thoughts immediately go back to a similar picture of Alexander in the Cathedral of Otranto in southern Italy where he is part of a huge mosaic floor created between 1163 and 1165 (see: Alexander’s presence in Magna Graecia). 

In the Venetian relief, Alexander is seated on a chariot, which is not clearly visible in Otranto's mosaic, pulled by winged griffins who lift him up into the skies. The motif is said to be very common in the 12^th-13^th century. 

Initially, the relief was not a decorative piece but a precious trophy like the famous bronze quadriga and other artifacts used to represent the transfer of the symbolic continuity from Constantinople to Venice. The ambition of the Venetian Doge was boundless as he strived to move in Alexander’s footsteps as ruler of the world. Nothing less …!

[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 3, the Pala d'Oro]

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 1, his tomb

It should not come as a surprise to find traces and testimonies of the glory of Alexander in Venice, Italy, centrally located between East and West. It is remarkable though that it dates to so many centuries after his death! 

The first time I heard of Alexander being linked to Venice was in Andrew Chugg’s book, The Lost Tomb of Alexander the Great. During his investigation, the author found a stone in the Cloister of Sant’Apollonia displaying a well-preserved relief of a Macedonian star together with remains of military panoply. 

In his next book, The Quest for the Tomb of Alexander the Great Chugg develops his findings leading to the time where the worship of Alexander as the Founder of Alexandria is curiously overlapped by St Mark, the Founder of the Alexandrian Church shortly after 391 AD. This coincides with the disappearance of Alexander’s corpse and the first appearance of St Mark’s tomb. In 828 AD, the corpse of St Mark was abducted by the Venetians, who on 8^th October 1094 placed it in a tomb in the crypt of the Basilica of San Marco in Venice. Because of the repeated flooding, the tomb became at risk in its downstairs crypt, and in 1811 it was moved to the high altar on the main floor where it still stands today. 

The key question is: are these remains indeed those of St Mark or could they belong to Alexander the Great, swapped somewhere back in the obscure days of the 4^th century AD? 

A simple visual examination could give enough clues to assert whether or not this body is Alexander’s, based on the wounds he received during his life. Another possibility would be a facial reconstruction that would faithfully disclose the face of either Mark or Alexander. A stunning thought! But the Church does not allow any access to the corpse or any form of examination whatsoever. 

[Cloister of Sant'Apollonia, shield with Macedonian star and remains of panoply]

Returning to the artifacts at the Cloister of Sant’Apollonia, they were recovered when the corpse was moved from the crypt to the present location in the Basilica. One stone of 140x120x30 cm displays a Macedonian shield of 70 cm in diameter, i.e., life-size. Besides the typical relief of the 8-pointed starburst shield, the relief shows a Macedonian sword, the kopis, and a pair of greaves. How or why it ended up at the Cloister remains a mystery despite Chugg’s insistence on an independent thorough examination of the stone! 

The material itself holds its secret. An early analysis in 1998 established that the bloc must have belonged to a large Hellenistic monument dated to the 3^rd or early 2^nd century BC. The article from “La Rivista di Engramma” n. 76, December 2009, describes it as decoration for a Roman commemorative, honorary, or funerary monument honoring Alexander the Great from the 1^st century BC. It also defines the stone as Aurisina, after a marble quarry about 15 kilometers from Trieste. This origin is hard to reconcile with a sarcophagus imported from Alexandria. 

For now, the mystery remains intact.

[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 2, from Constantinople]