Massive plundering of art in the early years of the Roman Empire

The plundering and looting of artwork have been ongoing for centuries, and it was not Emperor Augustus’ scoop. In a previous blog Wartime Looting in antiquity, I covered many ancient artifacts that changed owners over the centuries. This time I want to focus on Augustus’ contribution, among which are some treasures related to Alexander the Great.

Octavian's conquest of Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean clearly went to his head. He was now the most powerful man on earth for all to see and respect. To underscore his role, he proclaimed himself emperor taking the name of Augustus, which means majestic and venerable. Modesty was not his virtue.

The greatest treasures that fell in Octavian hands came from Alexandria, where the Ptolemies had amassed many artworks from the most famous Greek artists like Apelles, Alexander’s privileged painter, and Antiphilus, a contemporary of Apelles and maybe rival. However, he worked mainly for Philip II and for Ptolemy I. Egypt was an untouched trophy, and besides their Greek heritage, they had gathered spoils from Africa and collected other precious Orientalist Greek-Egyptian works of art, all to be added to their own centuries-old cultural heritage. Obviously, Octavian’s army helped themselves during what must have been quite a rampage after the downfall of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Upon their return to Rome, blinded by the wealth that poured into the city, everybody of name and fame wanted a piece of the pie and acquired what they could by all possible means: from honest purchases and authentic gifts to robbery, haggling, blackmail, or bribery.

Egypt was not the first victim, and we will remember that only a good one hundred years before, the Romans had helped themselves to the treasures of Macedonia in 168 BC when they won the decisive Battle of Pydna. Aemilius Paulus took the royal library of Macedonia with him, and Sulla followed suit in 86 BC, helping himself to Aristotle’s personal library in Athens. Marc Antony simply dispatched the 200,000 parchment rolls from the Library of Pergamon to Cleopatra in 43 BC as a wedding gift. Papyri and parchment rolls were no booty to show off with, but paintings, statues, and jewelry enabled you to brag. As kingdoms like Macedonia and Pergamon were subdued by Rome, they became treasure troves for art lovers and the nouveau riches.

Julius Caesar was already a great “collector,” and Octavian, as the new Emperor Augustus, would not stay behind. With the increase of its wealth, Rome developed further refinement. Several private connoisseurs are known by name, like L. Lucinius Luculius and Novius Vindex, who highly appreciated Greek bronze and marble statues made by Lysippos (he acquired a statuette of Heracles, which was previously owned by Alexander, Hannibal, and Sulla), Praxiteles, Phidias, Skopas, and Polycleitus, and the paintings by Apelles were among their prized objects.

Augustus “bought” a famous painting of Aphrodite by Apelles, a controversial transaction that officially enabled the citizens of Cos to pay their outstanding taxes, but some obscure blackmail is more likely. The painting was exhibited for the opening of the Temple of the deified Julius Caesar in the Forum Romanum in 29 BC. Despite the eulogy written by several Latin poets, it remains unclear whether this Aphrodite was painted in the nude, rising from the sea and wringing her hair, or if only her upper body was showing. Two more paintings by Apelles were put on public display on the Forum, probably because they featured Alexander the Great. They were “Castor and Pollux with Victory and Alexander the Great” and “The Figure of War with his Hands tied behind him following the Triumphal Chariot of Alexander.”

Everything tied to Alexander was a prime possession as Augustus was a great admirer of the world conqueror and visited his tomb while he was in Alexandria. So it seems that the bronze Nike statues that supported each corner of the canopy over Alexander’s funeral chariot, as described by Diodorus, found their way to Rome as two of them were placed in front of the Temple of Mars Ultor and the two others stood in front of the Regia. These Nike originally were covered with gold foil or gilt and not made of massive gold as often assumed, for that would have made the statues too heavy for the funeral chariot.

Another close relation to Alexander was found in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus. According to Pliny the Elder, inside this temple stood a magnificent bronze chandelier “with the lights fixed like apples on a tree,” which had been taken by Alexander from Thebes in 335 BC (another earlier spoil of war!). Alexander had dedicated it as his votive offering after victory at the Battle of the Granicus.

The Alexandrian painter Antiphilus was another favorite artist of the Roman emperor. A group representing “Alexander with Philip and Athena” was placed in Rome’s Portico of Octavia with ”Noble Hesione.” In the nearby Portico of Philippi, three more works found a place: “Alexander portrayed in his early teens,” “Dionysus,” and the “Death of Hippolytos.”

Augustus’ greed was boundless, and he did not hesitate to confiscate the chryselephantine statue of Athena from Tegea made by a certain Endoios to place it on the Forum Augusti. At the time of his conquest of Egypt, he also seized the statue of Zeus made by Myron from Samos and moved it to Capitol Hill in Rome.

These are, of course, only a few examples, for it is impossible to know how many works of art Augustus brought to Rome and how many pieces from previous acquisitions changed hands in those days. Yet the quantities and mainly their quality were unheard of, and we must thank Pliny the Elder for documenting the works displayed in Rome’s many public buildings and porticoes. Pausanias also, during his extensive travels, highlighted the prized collection. Plutarch, in turn, had an eye for Cleopatra’s treasures, including precious metals, jewels, pearls, and ivory.

It is hard to imagine the wealth and luxury displayed in the heyday of Rome, for this is far beyond anything we can imagine. Opulence was the common good, the Romans ruled the world, and they showed it.

[The above is based on an article published by Academia.edu: Plundered art in the galleries of Augustan Rome, uploaded by Tomasz Polański. The pictures are mine.]

Chinese search for immortality

The search for immortality is from all times but here we are confronted with a liquid that was meant to do just that!

The precious elixir of life was discovered in China’s Henan Province inside a bronze pot from the Han Dynasty. It was part of the grave goods surrounding the remains a noble family from Luoyang.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network - Credit  VGC]

Archaeologists first thought they found a liquor because of its alcoholic smell but close lab research revealed that it was made of potassium nitrate and alunite or alum. According to ancient Taoist texts, these elements were the main ingredients of an immortality medicine.

This is the first time such “immortality medicine” is found in China and it offers a unique opportunity to study the Chinese thoughts on achieving that immortality. I suppose that the 3.5 liters will suffice further examination.

Beside the remains of the deceased, this tomb, which covers 210 square meters, also yielded a great number of jade and bronze artifacts as well as painted clay pots.

Of course, the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD) started some 100 years after Alexander but that does not mean that this kind of elixir did not exist before that – maybe even in Alexander’s days …

New theory about the foundation of Apamea

In an earlier blog (see: Apamea, heritage of Alexander), I mentioned how the Macedonian military camp of Pella may have been founded by Alexander when he returned from Egypt in 331 BC.

The Hellenistic mosaics of Apamea that surfaced after clandestine excavations in October 2011 (see: The unique mosaic of Apamea and More illegal mosaics from Apamea) have triggered a new interpretation of the city’s history.

An in-depth study made by Marek Titien Olszewski and Houmam Saad and published by Academia.eu establishes that the foundation of Pella took place shortly after the Treaty of Triparadeisus in 321 BC upon the initiative of Antipater and inspired by Cassander.

By 300 BC, Seleucos renamed the city Apamea after his wife, Apame. Under his rule, it was turned into a military base where he kept 500 elephants and an extensive stud of 30,000 mares and 300 stallions.

A Census carried out in the year 6 AD, established that the population of Apamea reached at least 130,000 people – maybe even 500,000. All in all, a major city worthy of Alexander and his Successors!

3D imaging to the rescue of Palmyra’s Temple of Bel

These days, 3D imaging has become almost common good offering endless possibilities, but recreating a section of the Temple of Bel in Palmyra is quite something different.

We all remember how the precious Temple of Bel was blown up and thoroughly destroyed by IS in October 2015. It was simply heartbreaking!

As the beating heart of Palmyra, the Temple of Bel surrounded by the sacred precinct, the temenos, had defied the centuries (see: The Temple of Bel at Palmyra – in memoriam).

The most sacred part of the temple was the open adyton. Following Semitic traditions, it had two altars, one on each side. Both ceilings were cut from one single monolith stone which evidently did not survive the blast.

The amazing news is that an Italian team has entirely reconstructed the ceiling from the left hand niche using 3D imaging combined with some skilled stonework. The 3D technique is so well-developed that this copy matches the original in every aspect.

The 3D ceiling measures 12m x 1.5m and weights as much as 190 kg. It has now found a place of honor at the National Museum of Damascus for all to see.

[Picture from The Archaeological News Network - Credit  Yamam Alshaar]

There is no way this piece can ever replace what is lost but this is the next best thing. At least, we have the confirmation that from a scientific and practical point of view it is entirely possible to make such reconstructions.

Sitalces, commander of the Thracians

Apart from one single event told by Curtius, Arrian is the only ancient author to mention Sitalces by name. His origins remain relatively obscure, but he was apparently a prince, maybe even the son of King Cersobleptes of the Odrysian Thracians.

It was common practice in antiquity to take the sons of the kings as hostages to make sure that their fathers remained loyal to them at home. Alexander’s father had been such a hostage for several years in Thebes (see: Macedonia forged by Philip - Philip’s boyhood), and it is not unlikely that Sitalces shared the same fate.

Whatever the reason for his presence in Alexander’s army, Sitalces proved to be a competent commander who led the Thracian javelin men on more than one occasion.

The first time Arrian mentions the Thracians happens at the banks of the Granicus, where they supported the advance position on the left wing under Agathon, the Macedonian commander of the Thracian cavalry. This same cavalry was part of Alexander’s forces that marched to Miletus. During the siege of Miletus (see: Miletus, Alexander’s first siege in Asia), Alexander had made sure of the island of Lade by anchoring his fleet in its harbor and putting ashore “his Thracian contingent” (we don’t know how many), and some 4,000 mercenaries.

When in 331 BC, Alexander marched from Phaselis to join Parmenion in Gordion, he had to cross the challenging Climax Mountains (see: Alexander’s army crossing Mount Climax). He planned to send the bulk of his troops over difficult tracks across these mountains. He ordered his Thracian engineers ahead to cut out a path and steps in the rocks to make their march easier and faster. Traces of those steps and cuttings are still visible in some remote places today. Alexander took a shortcut with his smaller party, closely skirting the coastline.

The name of Sitalces is not mentioned so far but appears for the first time during the assault of Sagalassos. For this operation, the general command of Alexander’s left wing was assigned to Amyntas, whose troops were screened by the Thracian javelin battalions led by Sitalces.

Sitalces also accompanied Parmenion in 333 BC, when he was sent ahead to occupy the Syrian Gates in preparation for the confrontation with Darius at the Pinarus River. Again during the ensuing Battle of Issus, we find the Thracians under the command of Sitalces in the forefront of the Macedonian infantry on the left wing, together with Cretan archers.

It may be noteworthy that when Antipater sent reinforcement to Alexander in Memphis, these included beside 400 Greek mercenaries led by Menidas, a force of 500 Thracian cavalry commanded by a certain Asclepiodorus. It may not be a large contingency, but good cavalrymen were always highly appreciated.

The Thracians appear again at the Battle of Gaugamela. They were placed on the left at an angle with the main body of the Macedonian troops, under the command of Sitalces once again. They were, in turn, supported by allied cavalry under Coeranus and the Odrysian cavalry under Agathon. Arrian explicitly mentions that the Thracian infantry stood guard over the pack animals.

When, in 330 BC, Parmenion was stationed in Ecbatana to guard the enormous treasury Alexander had collected in Susa, Persepolis, and Pasargadae, the general had a force of 6,000 men at his disposal. After the plot and execution of Philotas later that year (see: The Philotas Affair – Part I – How the plot was revealed), the king dispatched Polydamas, one of his Companions, with a letter addressed to three generals that resided there under Parmenion’s command with instructions to kill the old general (see: The Philotas Affair – Part II – His judgment and execution). The three men to carry out Alexander’s orders were Cleander of Macedonia (brother of Coenus), Menidas, and Sitalces.

Just before reaching the Acesines River in India, Alexander learned that the Greek governor of Assacenia had been assassinated, and the people had revolted. At this time, Phrataphernes, satrap of Parthia and Hyrcania, rejoined Alexander with those Thracians left under his command. The Thracians were multipurpose troops that may have started as javelin-throwers and cavalry soldiers, but as the campaign went on, they were used successfully for all kinds of jobs.

We didn’t hear from Sitalces again until Alexander returned from India and joined Craterus in Carmania. Among the troops were the officers who had been with Parmenion in Ecbatana: Cleander, Heracon, Agathon, and Sitalces, with most of the men under their command. Cleander and Sitalces were accused of crimes like plundering temples, disturbing tombs, and other violent and tyrannical attacks against the natives. As these facts were reported to Alexander, he gave orders to execute all four generals (although Heracon may have been killed afterward when he arrived in Susa). Curtius mentions that these marshals were put in chains (to be killed, no doubt), and 600 of their followers were executed.

Well, Sitalces did not die the glorious death one would expect from the onset. Still, ten years of war and plundering, reaping wealth unheard of had definitely left their marks on everyone in the army, including Alexander. We don’t hear much about the common soldiers, except maybe their debaucheries in Babylon and the foreign women they took on the road, but foremost men like Harpalos, Philotas, and probably Parmenion paid their greed with their lives. So did Cleander, Heracon, Agathon, and Sitalces in this case.

All things considered, it is, however, surprising how loyal and how dedicated the gross of Alexander’s inner circle, his Companions and his generals, remained to him throughout the years.

Exquisite frescoes unearthed in Jordan

A Hellenistic tomb consisting of two funerary chambers has been recently found in Dion, one of the cities belonging to the Decapolis in the first century AD (see: Alexander, founder of Gerasa).  It was discovered by chance next to the theater that was recently unearthed.

Finding a tomb may be just one of many but finding a tomb with near intact wall paintings is an exception. All in all, the murals depict 260 figures representing humans, gods, and animals.

Right at the entrance, both walls and the ceiling depict nautical scenes in which nymphs and cupids are riding sea animals. The central medallion, in turn, is decorated with the signs of the zodiac and the planets set around a quadriga.

Starting with the chamber on the left, one discovers some gods lying on their couches while samples the goodies that are brought in by humans who are depicted to be smaller than themselves. The next wall is filled with peasants working in the fields with their oxen, but also gathering fruit and taking care of the grapevines. The last panel shows lumbermen cutting down a variety of tries with the help of the gods – a rare subject in Graeco-Roman art.

The walls of the chamber on the right are depicting the construction of a rampart in which laborers bring in the material loaded on the backs of their camels and donkeys under the supervision of architects or foremen. Stone-cutters or masons are climbing the walls, and some are involved in accidents. The last fresco probably represents a priest who is sacrificing to the guardian gods of the city.

At present, scholars are still in the process of deciphering the some sixty bits of text written in Aramaic, the local language, while using the Greek alphabet. This by itself is something extremely rare in the ancient Near East. Another oddity is that the inscriptions are presented in a way similar to modern comic books (in bubbles).

The rich iconography seems to indicate the founding of Capitolias, another name for Dion. This would fit the consultation of the gods choosing the site during a banquet, the clearing of the land (as opposed to the peasants), the construction of the wall, and finally the offerings to thank the gods after the building of the city.

A first conclusion leads to believe that this subterranean tomb of 52 m2 was built for the founder of Dion who is represented presiding over the sacrifice as depicted on the last wall in the right chamber. Once all the texts will be deciphered, we may find the name of this important personage although it may also be what is engraved on the lintel of the entrance door.

[Top picture: Two stone-cutters at work [Credit: Julien ALIQUOT/ HiSoMA 2018]

Indo-Greek blacksmith discovered in Pakistan

Peshawar is the first city in Pakistan which Hephaistion and Perdiccas reached with about half the Macedonians as they proceeded east from the Khyber Pass to build a bridge over the Indus River. Alexander with the other half of his troops marched north along the Kunar/Chitral River to take the Aornos Rock (modern Pir Sar).

[Picture from the Archaeology News Network - Credit : Dawn]

It is close to Peshawar that Pakistani archaeologists found the remains of iron workshops dating them to the 2^nd century BC, a period known as Indo-Greek. They base their statement on tools retrieved on the site, like iron melting pots, molds, trowels, knives and drills that were used to make bows and arrows, daggers and swords. The archaeologists have also unearthed remains of furnaces and grinding stones, all leading to labeling the site as a blacksmith.

Excavations also have revealed coins from the Indo-Greek period, but without further details. It would have been interesting, however, to know, for instance, the name of the king(s) depicted on these coins in order to narrow down the time-frame.

Anyway, it is great to gather every bit of information about the Indo-Greek period since so little is available due to the fact that this empire has not been subject to systematical excavations.

Shipwrecks from Alexander era

Divers have recently been investigation the seabed off the coast of Lebanon, more precisely just south of Tyre, the city Alexander besieged in 332 BC.

So far, eleven shipwrecks were explored, and they yielded a wide array of broken pottery and piles of stones.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network]

Credit: Lebanon Divers Syndicate, HO

Although archaeologists recognize the link of these wrecks with Alexander, they don’t seem to agree on the role these ships played in the actual siege of Tyre. The remains have been found some 700 meters from the beach.

The stones were probably lost on their route to the causeway Alexander was building to link the fortified island of Tyre to the old city on the mainland. The ships may have sunk during severe storms or simply because they were overloaded. Piles of such stones were found 50 to 200 meters apart.

As to the pots, it has been suggested that they all broke after a violent collision of the ships since none were recovered intact. A close study of these shards indicates that they are probably from Greek origin.

The link of these shipwrecks to Alexander is solely based on historical events, as the construction of the breakwater radically changed the landscape and the seascape around Tyre. We’ll have to await more archaeological study to be entirely sure.