Another aspect of Alexander’s personality?

Life is full of surprises and Alexander’s life is no exception. Our best sources are extant books by Arrian, Diodorus, Curtius, Plutarch, and Justin, but contemporary documents are far more difficult to find (see: Eyewitness accounts of Alexander's life). Alexander’s Royal Journals carefully kept by Callisthenes and Eumenes have not survived, except for some rare fragments whose origins cannot be verified with certainty.

Browsing through Robinson’s book, The History of Alexander the Great and the Ephemerides of Alexander’s Expedition, I was intrigued by the few lines that survived Ephippus’ writing. 

Ephippus of Olynthus was a historian and contemporary of Alexander. It is unclear whether this man is the same as Ephippus of Chalcis, mentioned by Arrian as one of the superintendents Alexander installed in Egypt. The reason to link both names is that the city of Olynthus is part of Chalcis. Otherwise, our Ephippus may well have lived at the king’s court or shortly after his death. 

He is known as the author of a lost pamphlet “On the death (or funeral) of Alexander and Hephaistion,” as mentioned by Athenaeus of Naucratis, who lived about the end of the 2^nd/beginning of the 3^rd century AD. The document held an account of the burial of Hephaistion and Alexander as well as of the king’s death. 

Robinson is quoting Athenaeus in several separate issues, shedding a different light on Alexander than what other, usually Greek, sources tell us. 

According to Ephippus, Alexander spent one hundred minas on a dinner with his friends, i.e., sixty or seventy of them. It seems the author is reacting to some critics about Alexander’s expenses compared to those of the Persian king, who spent four hundred talents for his 15,000 invites. Converting the currencies, however, both expenditures come to the same amount per capita.

Another observation made by Ephippus is that the Macedonians never understood how to drink in moderation, but drank a lot of wine at the beginning of a feast. The case of Proteas of Macedonia, who was a sturdy guy, is highlighted because he drank a great deal all his life. Alexander, Ephippus said, once ordered a six-quart cup of wine, and after a drink, toasted Proteas, thereby extending a challenge to him. Proteas took the cup, sang praises to his king, and drank the rest of the wine under the wide applause of those present. A little later, Proteas ordered another such cup, toasted the king, and took a drink. Alexander then (accepting the challenge) took it but could not hold it, falling back on his cushion and dropping the cup from his hands. The king fell ill and died. 

This scene inspired Oliver Stone in his Alexander movie during a scene played in India. However, this is not how the king died, and the text puts serious question marks behind the assumption that Ephippus lived at Alexander's court at the time of his death. The truth about Alexander’s death, for me, lies elsewhere as I discussed on previous occasions (see: A personal approach to the cause of death for Alexander).

Regarding the luxury of Alexander, Ephippus tells us that the king had a golden throne, and couches with silver feet “on which he used to sit and transact business with his companions”. These couches are known from the Susa wedding party, but the link is not made in this text. 

Ephippus continues by stating that Alexander also wore “sacred vestments”, such as the purple robe, cloven sandals, and horns of Ammon as if he were a god. At times, he would imitate Artemis, wearing her dress while driving his chariot. Alexander also had a Persian robe and displayed the bow and javelin of the goddess above his shoulder. Sometimes, he dressed as Hermes, and sitting with his friends, he wore the god’s sandals and the petasus, holding the caduceus in his hand. In everyday use, he would appear wearing a purple riding cloak and a purple tunic with white stripes, and the Macedonian causia holding the royal diadem. Referring to Heracles, Alexander would wear a lion’s skin and carry the god’s club. 

To my own astonishment, Ephippus also says that Alexander used to have the floor sprinkled with perfumes and fragrant wine, while incense and myrrh were burnt in his presence. If this is true, I presume it would happen only while the king resided in one of the Persian palaces? The bystanders are said to remain silent out of fear of his violence, “with no regard for human life.” 

Athenaeus further quotes Ephippus, saying that Alexander arranged a festival for Dionysus at Ecbatana. He does not tell us when this sacrifice occurred but I would assume it was in 324 BC, maybe around the death of Hephaistion. 

The local satrap Satrabates had invited all the troops (just try to picture the scene!) for his lavish feast, and many speeches of praise and flattery were made to impress Alexander. As in Samarkand, some of these praises turned into insolence. However, with the king’s complicity one of his armorers totally went overboard by having the herald announce that he, Gorgus, would shower the son of Ammon with 3,000 gold coins; and whenever Alexander would besiege Athens, he would add 10,000 full suits of armor and as many catapults and other missiles needed for the war. 

Such words clearly illustrate how preposterous and absurd these flatteries of Alexander were! Freedom of speech? 

Shifting through Ephippus' lines, it is difficult and even impossible to determine what is correct and what is not. As always, opinions are divided. Ephippus’ version of the facts is examined in detail by Antony Spawforth in his article The Pamphleteer Ephippus, King Alexander and the Persian Royal Hunt.

A Colosseum in Mastaura, Turkey

The ancient city of Mastaura is unknown to me and the internet is not proving to be very helpful. The site is situated 50 kilometers east of Aydin, Turkey. 

In the middle of nowhere, aerial pictures revealed a circle around a depression that was too perfect to be natural. The untrained eye may miss it altogether but the hidden contours belonged to a Colosseum. A lot of vegetation and a thick layer of soil has hidden this Roman construction from view for centuries. It was discovered in 2020 and as the archaeologists started clearing the site by cutting trees and bushes that had held the stone remains in their grip, they realized it belonged to Mastaura. 

[Picture from Arkeonews]

Having lain buried for centuries, the Colosseum underground is rather well-preserved. The parts of the building above ground reveal rows of seats, the central area where the spectacles took place, and the outside supporting walls and vaults. It is definitely smaller than its counterpart in Rome. 

The amphitheater could soon be dated to about 200 AD, i.e., the days when emperors of the Severan Dynasty ruled, 193-235 AD. 

Usually, amphitheaters are oval-shaped, but this is one of the rare circular examples, measuring 30x40 meters. The only round example I have ever seen was in Cyrene, modern Libya. There, its life started as a theater but the expansion of the city called for an amphitheater. Lacking the space for an oval shape, the builders simply mirrored the existing theater to create a round amphitheater (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). 

The Colosseum of Mastaura offered seating to 15,000-20,000 people, which may have come from neighboring cities such as Aphrodisias, Miletus, Priene, and Ephesos. It is one of three such arenas discovered so far in Turkey. The spectacles were similar to the gladiator battles and animal fights organized all over the Roman Empire. 

Mastaura appears to be built inside a narrow valley, maybe along a small river and covered an amazing surface of 160,000 m2. Over the past two years, researchers unearthed an impressive underground sewage system that spread over the entire city. Based on the engineering technique and the materials used, it can be dated to around 200 BC and was probably used well into the days of Roman imperial rule. The size of the sewer is such that one can comfortably walk inside them. For now, the passage is blocked some 20 meters into the system because the walls caved in. 

[Picture from Arkeonews/IHA]

A lot of work remains to be done at Mastaura, like reinforcing some sections of the walls and brickwork of the Colosseum, clearing the sewage system, and exposing more buildings and artifacts around the city.

Mastaura was important enough to mint its own coins in Roman times, and a substantial number has been found so far and needs to be further analyzed.

To our immortal hero, Alexander. Στην υγειά σας!

How about crowning Alexander with a gold wreath on his birthday? In Greek antiquity, gold wreaths symbolized glory, power, and immortality – three qualities that certainly apply to Alexander! 

These wonderful creations were imitations of laurel, myrtle, olive, ivy, or oak worn during symposia and in processions. I elaborated on the subject in my earlier blog post: Wreaths and crowns of leaves or gold. They also accompanied important people to their burial site, as is the case of Philip’s tomb in Aegae. The gold wreath stood for the king's victories in battle and his immortality. 

Each type of leaf came with its own significance. For instance, oak leaves representing wisdom were used in Philip’s days. They also were symbols of Zeus, as were olive branches. Gold wreaths could also be dedicated to the gods at their respective sanctuaries. 

After Alexander’s death, these wreaths became more popular. They were the result of a high level of craftsmanship since the thin gold sheets had to be shaped into life-like leaves and flowers to produce an extremely fragile piece. 

By the late 2^nd /3^rd century, they were exclusively reserved for the aristocracy, as recorded by Athenaeus of Naucratis. He was an Egyptian-born Greek writer, who mentioned that guests at luxurious dinner parties in Alexandria wore such gold wreaths. 

Let’s invite ourselves to Alexander’s birthday party and raise our wine beaker to his eternal glory. HAPPY BIRTHDAY!

Does age matter?

Writing about Alexander over the years, I have been handling chronological dates for his whereabouts in the correct time frame. There is, however, another approach to consider and that is Alexander’s age. 

We know he became king at the age of twenty and started his invasion of Asia at the age of twenty-two. He died a month short of his 33^rd birthday. All his marches, sieges, battles, and fighting are condensed within this last period of roughly ten years. 

A comparison with any modern monarchy is impossible because there are hardly any kings left and they no longer go to war at the head of their army. To compare Alexander with young men his age today is out of the question also simply because life and the circumstances of living are too far apart. 

Alexander has been taught by Aristotle but again this kind of education cannot be identified with the teaching of a young man in our modern world. I believe that even Philip, although he intended to do what was best for his son, underestimated the vastness of Aristotle’s knowledge. Alexander was meant to rise above Philip because he understood how to draw from Aristotle’s vast database (to use modern terminology) and merge it expertly with his innate infallible instinct - his genius. 

However, Philip may well have realized the potential of his 16-year-old son when he entrusted him with the seal of Macedonia while campaigning against Byzantium. The young prince honored his assignment as Regent by successfully putting down the Maedi revolt on the country’s northern border. 

Two years later, Philip put his son in command of his cavalry at the Battle of Chaironeia. Alexander did more than his share and annihilated the entire Theban Band, all three hundred of them! 

We don’t know how much time the young prince spent among the soldiers growing up in Pella, but I think it is safe to assume it was a lot. Leading the small contingent against the Maedi and the cavalry in Chaironeia speaks volumes. An army has that instinctive flair to recognize a true leader, one they can and will trust. 

This trust would only grow when Alexander became king after his father was murdered. In the next two years, he successfully led his troops against the Illyrians and the Thracians to secure his northern borders, sacked the city of Thebes in retribution for its betrayal, and confirmed his position as Hegemon of Greece as per the Treaty of Corinth. Alexander could never have contemplated his campaign in Asia without the full trust and commitment of his army. 

He crossed the Hellespont shortly before his 22^nd birthday and fought the Persian army for the first time at the Granicus River. Later that summer, he marched to Sardes and took Ephesos, Priene, Miletus, Didyma, and Halicarnassus. Alexander spent the following winter in Lycia, after which he conquered Phaselis and Perge. 

When he was 23 years old, he headed north to Sagalassos and from there to Gordion, where he cut the knot. Crossing Cappadocia, he returned to the shores of the Mediterranean. At Tarsus, he fell sick with a fever, which incapacitated him for several weeks. By the end of the year, he was engaged in the Battle of Issus, his first personal confrontation with King Darius. 

In two years, Alexander fought two major battles (see: The Battle of the Granicus and The Battle of Issus, where Alexander and Darius faced each other for the first time), besieged two cities, Miletus and Halicarnassus, and occupied all the major ports in Asia Minor. In our modern world, this means that he crossed all of Turkey. 

At the age of 24, he laid siege to two more cities, Tyre (building a mole in the process) and Gaza. His reception in Egypt was that of a liberator, and he was soon acclaimed as their new Pharaoh - a title that automatically made him a god in the eyes of the Egyptians. At the western end of the Nile Delta, he founded his first Alexandria, a city that still exists and prospers today! 

Many more sieges and battles were to follow in Central Asia and India. We almost take them for granted, despite that every siege and every battle came with its own technicalities and challenges. Alexander faced many hardships as he traveled through deserts, waded through countless rivers, and crossed mountains as high as those of the Hindu Kush! 

The three years Alexander spent in Sogdiana and Bactria, from his 27^th to his 30^th birthday, were an uninterrupted succession of skirmishes and fights in guerrilla wars he was totally unfamiliar with. The events culminated with his victory at the Battle of the Hydaspes against the Indian King Porus. By then, he and his men had covered some 28,000 kilometers, creating many new Alexandrias in the process. 

Although Alexander is usually depicted sitting on his horse, we have to keep in mind that he moved at the pace of his foot soldiers. Riding bareback was not comfortable, not for the rider and not for the horse (see: No saddles and no stirrups for Alexander’s cavalry). 

It is impossible to imagine anyone covering such a distance on foot. It would imply walking an average of 2,800 kilometers a year, ten years in a row! Let us keep in mind that many of his troops were veterans of his father’s days, men in their fifties, sixties, and even seventies! Not a leisurely trip for the fainthearted. 

Speaking of walking: how many pairs of shoes, boots, and sandals would the Macedonians have worn out? Providing new ones for some 40,000 men or more would have implied production on an industrial scale! Maybe we should believe the sources suggesting that the soldiers fought and walked sections of the route barefoot?

Sadly, Alexander died far too young, and so did Hephaistion, but men like Ptolemy and Seleucos lived to the ages of 84 and 77, respectively. Age clearly is not everything!

Istanbul’s Airport Museum, a rare treat

In 2020, Istanbul Airport opened a Museum accessible to those travelers having time to spare while transiting before their final destination or waiting for their departure flight.

A special space has been reserved upstairs, behind the duty-free shops to house a collection of artifacts from all over Turkey. 

[Picture from Daily Sabah]

The exhibition “Treasures of Turkey – Faces of Thrones” presents a rotating collection of some 300 works of art from 29 different museums. They cover prehistoric sculptures from Göbekli Tepe and Çatalhöyük, and objects from historical times, Lydian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk, Ottoman, and modern Turkey. 

The visitors will be treated to selected personal belongings of kings and emperors throughout the ages, statues, reliefs, manuscripts, cloths, thrones, jewelry, paintings, etc. The collection is said to change once or twice a year making it worthwhile to return every now and then.

No saddles and no stirrups for Alexander’s cavalry

Saddles and stirrups did not exist in Alexander’s days. He and his cavalry forces rode their horses bareback, which required considerable communication with the horse and a great sense of balance. It is extremely uncomfortable for both the horse and the rider, and after a while, it also becomes tiring for both. Using a cloth or animal skin to sit on provides some relief – but still. 

Alexander and his highly skilled cavalry could maneuver and fight using the technique called “the knee grip”. It meant they would grip the horse’s sides with their knees and in doing so they applied a balanced amount of pressure to stay on the horse and to guide it. 

I always marveled at how the Macedonian cavalry managed to maneuver toward and among the enemy lines, throwing their spears and hacking their kopis down on the attackers without falling off. Some sources establish that they used shorter, more maneuverable horses better suited for battle without stirrups. Yet others have Alexander and his generals ride noble horse breeds.

The first saddles are thought to have come from Central Asia. The oldest specimen so far has been discovered in a woman’s grave at Yanghai in the northwest of the Turpan Basin in China. These people may have had close contact with the nomadic Scythians, who introduced them to the saddle. 

The specimen from the grave is made of leather and thanks to radiocarbon, it can be dated to between 724 and 396 BC. This most recent date is only forty years before Alexander was born. It makes me wonder what the picture would have been if the West had been in touch with China at that time! 

[Picture from Live Science, credit Patrick Wertmann] 

The woman in the Yanghai grave wore a coat made of hides, woolen pants, and short leather boots. The saddle was made of two cowhide cushions stuffed with deer and camel hair and straw. It was placed on her buttocks as if she were sitting on it. Analyses confirm that such a saddle would have efficiently held the rider in a firm position even without stirrups, which were invented in China as well and reached Europe around the 2nd century BC. The Romans in the 1st century AD commonly used saddles that were highly effective, despite their lack of stirrups. 

Saddles are said to require a girth, i.e., a strap of hide that was tied around the horse’s barrel. This advantage was quickly picked up by the steppe people of Central Asia. The Mongol tribes carried this knowledge to Europe. The Byzantine emperors were the first to mention the saddle stirrups in 580 AD. 

This evolution led to our modern use of saddles with stirrups that provide safe seating for the cavalry on the battlefield and on hunting parties. 

It makes one wonder if and how the saddle and stirrups would have affected Alexander’s battle techniques and tactics …

Another gold bust, this time from Switzerland

Some time ago, I wrote about a gold bust of Septimius Severus discovered in Plotinopolis, some 20 km north of Thracian Greece (see: A solid gold bust of Septimius Severus). 

I thought the find was pretty unique, but the Getty Villa just opened a special exhibition around a nearly life-size gold bust of Marcus Aurelius (see: the gold emperor of Aventicum published online in 2023). 

The bust is not made of solid gold like Septimius Severus’ but is hammered from a single sheet of gold. The gold bust was retrieved from an ancient sewage pipe in 1939. It was probably hidden there during a Germanic invasion in the 3^rd century AD. 

Interestingly, the discovery was made at Aventicum, modern Avenches, in Switzerland. The Romans occupied Switzerland as they expanded their empire over the Alps. Julius Cesar defeated the local Helvetii tribe in 58 BC, and soon their land became a Roman Province. 

Aventicum, located between Lausanne and Berne, was built on the site of this Celtic settlement and prospered during the first three centuries AD. In its heyday, it counted as many as 20,000 people, who became Roman citizens assimilating Roman culture. 

The treasures of ancient Aventicum are kept in the Avenches Roman Museum, occupying a medieval tower from the 12^th century near the amphitheater. 

This amphitheater from the early 2^nd century AD could seat 16,000 spectators. It was partially built of stone, i.e., the walls, stairs, and central entrance, but the seating area was made of wood. When it fell into disuse in the 4^th century, the building served as a stone quarry. 

The Roman vestiges counted more imposing monuments, including a theater, a temple where the bust was found, and the Thermal Baths of the Forum. Another striking feature is the Tornallaz, the only tower remaining from the initial 73 of the Roman city walls. This wall was 5.5 kilometers long and counted four gates. 

The gold bust of Marcus Aurelius was found under a temple situated at the center of a large courtyard framed with a Stoa on all sides. According to the available inscriptions, the temple was dedicated to Celtic gods as well as the ruling Roman emperor! 

The museum holds an impressive collection of artifacts such as mosaics and friezes, but also portrait sculptures recovered from the sanctuaries and the public monuments. 

A selection of artifacts, including the gold bust of Marcus Aurelius, is presently exhibited at the Getty Villa in Malibu, California till January 29, 2024. 

[Both pictures are taken from the Getty Villa exhibition link]

The beauty of ancient glassware

I always loved Roman glassware. It is such a fragile material and it is amazing to see such a variety of shapes and models on display in so many museums. 

Glass was first produced around 1600 BC in Egypt and Mesopotamia. To that effect, sand was mixed with salt, preferably natron as found in dry lake beds in Egypt. This mixture in the right proportions was heated in a kiln until it turned into glass. 

These rough glass chunks were acquired by craftsmen who melted them down and pressed them into molds, letting them cool off and harden to obtain the desired object. 

One of the earliest finds of glass ingots is known from the shipwreck of Uluburun. This ship went down in a storm in 1350 BC, i.e., shortly after 1600 BC when glass was first made. It yielded a precious cargo of all kinds including glass ingots colored with copper and cobalt (see: The flooded remains of Kekova Island and Uluburun). It must have been an extremely valuable part of the ship’s cargo. 

The oldest artifacts apparently were beads made of glass paste, generally by Phoenician artists going back to the 7^th-3^rd century BC found in Egypt. More recent Phoenician examples date from the 4^th-3^rd century BC exhibited at the Bardo Museum in Tunis. Typically, each bead shows a human head with big eyes and well-drawn facial details including a hairdo. 

At the small Airport Museum of Athens, there are glass beads from a necklace of the 5^th century BC decorated with the evil eye, retrieved from the local Twin Sanctuary. 

A Persian glass bowl was unearthed in Cuma, Italy, dating from 400-350 BC displayed at the British Museum in London. This means that the Persians understood the art of glass making, probably from Mesopotamian sources. 

Blown glass was a Roman invention from the 1^st century BC. This technique made it much easier to create objects as it required less time and less material. Where glassware initially was a product reserved for Egypt’s high society, it now become readily available to lower social classes. The items were more affordable and soon accessible to everyone all over the empire. As a result, archaeologists readily unearthed them in Greece, Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, Italy, Libya, Tunisia, etc. The Römisch-Germanishes Museum in Cologne holds a rich and select assortment of artifacts, but many other museums also offer rare examples. 

The shapes and forms of the objects are endless: vases, jars, flasks, drinking glasses, pitchers, wine jugs, pyxides, perfume bottles, and even cinerary urns. A big cinerary glass urn from the 1^st-2^nd century AD is on display at the Bardo Museum, but the largest glass amphora was found in Olbia, dated to 150-80 BC, and is exhibited at the Altes Museum in Berlin. 

The most striking of all glassware and my personal favorites are the delicate blown glass vessels in the shape of a fish or galley. Also blue enameled vases, translucent and transparent ones, and bottles with fishnet decorations – all from the 1^st century AD discovered in Begram, Afghanistan. Of outstanding quality are the enameled and painted glass beakers made in Alexandria, Egypt, also found in Begram. The scenes are familiar as they represent Fighting Hoplites, an African hunt, and surprisingly, even the Rape of Europe, Ganymede and the Eagle. This impressive collection can be admired at the Musée Guimet in Paris.

Sadly, glassware rarely receives the attention it deserves because our eyes are mostly drawn towards larger works of art, such as statues and reliefs of people and gods we are familiar with. However, it certainly is rewarding to pay attention to these fine and fragile objects next time around.

Aristobulus, more than a biographer

Aristobulus of Cassandreia has been listed among the many biographers of Alexander the Great (see: Eyewitness accounts of Alexander’s life), but he was far more than that. He did not hold any military function in Alexander’s army. Consequently, not being involved allowed him to approach the events as an onlooker. 

He must have been a tough guy since he survived the hardships of Alexander’s campaigns, including the march through the Gedrosian Desert. He seems to have lived to be over ninety years old. 

When he was 83, he began writing his book about the exploits of Alexander from the early days of his kinship to his death. He was blessed with an excellent memory, being able to recall so many events, novelties, and details! Apparently, his book was finished at about the same time as Ptolemy and Cleitarchus published theirs, 285-283 BC. Unfortunately, most of his work is lost. We only have a few scraps together with his observations recorded and used later by Arrian and Strabo. 

We may assume that Aristobulus’ accounts were exact and reliable. He had a wide field of interest and investigated the land, the animals, the many peoples he encountered, the public buildings, and other construction works. Alexander’s military campaign was not his priority. 

He is best known as the engineer/ architect in charge of restoring Cyrus’ Tomb in Pasargadae, a serious responsibility that clearly shows how much Alexander trusted his capabilities. 

Aristobulus, however, was mainly a geographer. He spent much time analyzing and describing the fauna and flora he encountered, the rainfall and the Indian monsoon (whose arrival he recorded in Taxila), the rivers, and the different climates. He drew an in-depth comparison between India and Egypt, including their environment. He analyzed the river courses, placing them in a broader context as trade routes throughout Central Asia and Punjab. 

The Oxus (see: Crossing the Oxus River), for instance, was the longest river, he said, that was navigable and used to transport goods from India to the Caspian Sea. Another river that caught his attention was the Polytimetus (see: Alexander's march to Maracanda) in Sogdiana, which did not flow into another river or a sea, but petered out in the desert. 

On the other hand, fragments of Aristobulus’ text on plants have been preserved. He tells us how rice was cultivated in beds in the backwaters and that the plants were 1.75 meters tall. He said that since each plant had several ears, the harvests were plentiful, adding that the grains had to be hulled. 

The geographer also spent ink on the importance of Alexander’s visit to Siwah. Unlike fellow biographers of the king, Aristobulus detailed Alexander’s route. Ptolemy stated that Alexander headed directly for Memphis. Aristobulus, instead, wrote that the king left from Paraetonium and followed the Mediterranean for about 290 kilometers before turning south to Siwah. On the way back, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria. This implies that he returned over the same route as the one used on his outward journey. Again, this is the version of events as copied by Arrian.

We know very little about Aristobulus’ fascinating personality, but he is one of the rare authors who draws an overwhelmingly positive picture of Alexander. He depicts him as a righteous king, concerned about justice and not making hasty decisions. Another of his remarkable declarations is that Alexander was not a heavy drinker but liked to spend time with his companions, toying with his drink. That is a far cry from the many statements or hearsay statements depicting Alexander as a heavy drinker and even that the wine led to his premature death in Babylon! 

Aristobulus rightfully declares that Alexander was under the protection of the gods. Nowadays, we would say that he was born under a lucky star. Why not?

An inconspicuous Heracles

Even a four-meter-tall bronze statue of Hercules may remain unnoticed among the many treasures of the Vatican Museum in Rome. It represents Heracles (Hercules), resting on his club, with the lion skin over his arm and holding the apple of Hesperides in his left hand.

 

[Picture from Museo Vaticano]

The so-called Hercules Mastai Righetti (Mastai after the ruling Pope, and Righetti after the banker) stood in a niche at the museum’s Round Hall. It had been discovered beneath the courtyard of the Palazzo Pio Righetti in 1864 during works on the Campo dei Fiori in Rome. 

Presently, restorers have removed the dark coat of wax and other material from the 19th-century restoration. The layer of dirt and grime hid the beauty of the original gilded statue from view. As a result, this Heracles now appears in all its splendor making the archaeologists understand this is one of the most significant statues of its time.

 

They agree that the original gilding is exceptionally well-preserved. The skill displayed by the smelters to fuse mercury to gold made the gilded surface more enduring. It is the best example of compact and solid gilding ever encountered.

 

It is one of the Roman masterpieces from between the end of the 1^st century and the beginning of the 3^rd century AD, maybe inspired by an Attic school model from 390-370 BC.

 

The statue had been buried with the ritual remains of a lamb. It was found in a trench covered by a travertine slab that carried an inscription FCS, “Fulgur Conditum Summanium”, meaning “here is buried a Summanian thunderbolt”. Summanus was the ancient Roman god of nocturnal thunder and this means that the statue had been struck by lightning. As lightning was a divine force, the Romans believed that the statue was imbued with divinity. It was buried in a marble shrine at the very spot where it was hit. Divine forces occupied the place of burial and the place where the statue was hit by lighting.

 

Taking their belief a step further, the Romans said that an object struck by lightning generated love and also eternity. They were right in this case as Heracles remained hidden for over fifteen hundred years (an eternity in its own right).

 

The last task for the restorers is to repair the missing pieces that had been filled with plaster in the 19^th century. Nowadays, they use resin instead. The restoration is expected to be completed by the end of this year after which the shiny Heracles will return to the museum.