The rescue of five ancient silver coins

It is always a pleasure to read good news. The Archaeology News Network has a great article about five rare coins rescued from being auctioned off in Munich and Zurich but now returned to Greece. The article includes a very detailed picture of each item, which by itself is a pure pleasure for the eyes.

The three coins that were discovered in Munich have found their rightful place in the Numismatic Museum of Athens:

- a stater from Lindos, Rhodes, dating from the first half of the 5^th century BC

- a stater from Elis, a region in the northwestern corner of the Peloponnese, from around 328 BC

- an octadrachm of Getas, king of the Thracian Edonian tribe, from 480-460 BC

The other two silver coins were caught in Zurich:

- a tetradrachm from Athens dated 136 BC

- a tetradrachm of Ptolemy IV Philopator from about the end of the 3^rd century BC, minted in Sidon. He may be depicted here with his wife, Arsinoe III of Egypt.

These precious items have been appropriately handed over to the Archaeological Museum of Patras.

Criminals keep on hunting in the hope of selling their booty for lots of money on the black market abroad. There is no limit to the looting, and coins, in particular, are easy to smuggle out of sight of the authorities. Inside Greece, it appears that over 2,000 coins have been confiscated. Germany, on the other hand, returned some 600 ancient coins and other antiquities, besides 33 vessels from the Mycenaean era that were looted and illegally brought into the country.

Although it is praiseworthy that so many artifacts find their way home, it remains very regrettable that the objects have been taken out of their context forever, losing much of their historical value.

[The pictures of the coins are evidently from the Archaeology News Network]

How to dig up your own mosaic floor

The discovery of a mosaic floor found underneath a house or a vineyard in Italy seems to be recurrent news. I have read a couple of such articles over the past months. Just dig deep enough under the street level, your house or your field and eventually you’ll hit remains from antiquity like surprisingly elaborate mosaicfloors.

[Picture from Edition CNN - Credit Soprintendenza Speciale di Roma/ BNP Paribas Real Estate] 

About six years ago, archaeologists were called in after early remains were spotted during construction works in the residential area of Rome – more precisely on the Aventine Hill, one of the initial seven hills of the city.

The site showed signs of occupation going back to 900 BC. In the middle of the 2^nd century BC, a Roman Domus, a typical residence for the Roman upper class stood on this spot. The black and white mosaic floor that was unearthed has been dated to the 1^st century BC and another fragment from about two centuries later. More black and white mosaics, in geometric patterns this time, are typical for the reign of Hadrian (117-138 AD) and five more mosaics from the days of his successors were uncovered as well.

Instead of moving these floors to a museum and taking them entirely out of their context, it was decided to leave them in situ and to create a museum under the modern apartment block.

This is very exciting news as it reminds me of a similar exhibit in Ravenna. Here the floors of the entire villa from the 6^th century AD were found under the parking garage of an apartment building. These beautiful remains have been made accessible to the public. They go by the name Tapeti di Pietra (carpets of stone), a little gem worth to be seen!

Earlier this year, a well-preserved mosaic floor was found in a vineyard of the Valpolicella area, north of Verona. It has been dated to the 3^rd century AD and displays polychrome patterns both geometric and floral.

[Picture from Comune Negrar di Valpolicella]

The site was known since the 19^th century when the remains of an ancient Roman villa were uncovered. However, pinpointing the exact location of the construction was quite another story. Only sporadic excavations occurred due to a lack of fund or lack of access since the vineyard is still operational.

In spite of the new restrictions around the coronavirus pandemic, the town officials seem very keen to explore the remains of that villa and its treasures pretty soon.

The Getty Villa, an invitation to Roman life

 The Getty Villa in Malibu, California is more than a museum. The premises offer a priceless insight into daily life as it was during the 1^st century AD of the Roman Empire.

The Villa is a reconstruction of the Villa dei Papiri in Herculaneum and the truthful recreation of what once was. Whereas most people may expect some kind of Disneyland recreation, the Getty Villa is as close to reality as can be. Instead of imagining what such a house would look like while strolling through the streets of Herculaneum or Pompeii, Paul Getty has done the work for us. For those who ever visited Athens, it can be compared to the careful reconstruction of the Stoa of Attalus.

This means that, although most visitors will rush to the entrails of the Villa to have a close look at the superb collection of antiquities, it is worth spending time looking at the building itself.

I already gave a detailed description of the Villa in my earlier blog, The renovated Getty Villa in Malibu, California.

It so happened that the Getty Villa posted this revealing video, which interestingly entirely matches my own impressions.

The 1,200 antiquities on display at the Villa are all of extremely high quality and often tell a story of their own. Given the total of approximately 44,000 such artifacts to choose from, you’ll find something new to discover each time you visit the Getty Villa.

We should keep in mind that the layout of a Roman villa is a mere copy of what Alexander experienced back home in Macedonia a few centuries earlier. Enough impressions to dream away!

The Royal Palace of Pella will open to the public in 2021

At last! The announcement is made official that the Royal Palace of Pella will open for visitors in the summer of 2021.

It is only a postponement of ten years. The birthplace (we hope) of Alexander was supposed to open in 2011, but at the last moment, it was decided to restart new excavations. At that time, Greece was facing a severe financial crisis which most certainly didn’t help the progress of the works.

The Greek City Times brought the long-awaited news and kindly added a full drawing of the palace layout. The quality of the picture, unfortunately, is awful and far from sharp. But this is all we have for the moment.

[picture from The Greek City Times]

It is said that the palace counted seven large buildings and I was hoping, against all odds, to find out where the palace proper was located as opposed to the premises occupied by King Philip’s wives other than Olympias. There must have been a room reserved for official receptions or banquets, a library, a Gymnasion and perhaps even a pool.

Instead, the article centers on the presentation of a digital tour in a visitor center. This edifice will be built to that purpose in 2023. Why this cannot be included or added to the existing Archaeological Museum of Pella nearby raises questions.

From what filters through, this palace is said to cover 28 ha, as opposed to the 6 ha mentioned initially. The reason for that difference may be linked to the period of prosperity that followed Alexander's death. Between the years 320 till 250 BC, the palace may have undergone drastic expansions.

For now, many questions remain unanswered. The fact remains that we will never know what treasures were kept inside the Royal Palace of Pella as the Romans thoroughly looted the premises and carried their trophies in triumph to Rome. 

Sassanid art in pictures

The Sassanids ruled over Iran from 224 AD until the Arabs took over in the 7^th century AD. This is a far cry from the empire of Darius III that Alexander conquered. Yet, it is an interesting time frame altogether since the Sassanids drew their inspiration from the earlier Achaemenid rule (see: Sassanid reliefs tell a story of their own in Persia).

This era left its imprints all over Persia, as can be seen in the rock-carved reliefs of Naqs-i Rajab and Naqsh-i Rustam close to Persepolis, Tang-i Tchogan at Bishapur and Taq-iBostan near Kermanshah. Also, the temples of goddess Anahita, both in Bishapur and in Kangavar show a mixture of Sassanid and Hellenistic influences (see: The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia).

[Picture from Tehran Times]

Presently, the Italian University of Sapienza in Rome has worked together with the Anahita Temple National Center in Kangavar to exhibit photographs on arts and monuments, together with architectural works from across the province of Kermanshah in western Iran. The pictures include views of the ruins of the Anahita Temple in Kangavar as well as of the Palace of Khosrow Parviz in Qasr-e Shirin.

The Iranian collaboration with the Italian experts has centered on Anahita’s sanctuary in Kangavar as discussed earlier in my blog The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia.

Also highlighted is the Palace of the Sassanid King Ardashir in Firuzabad that displays the unique dome construction known as the squinch. This architectural feature consists of building a dome on top of a square base. It may well be the earliest surviving example and could indicate that the squinch was actually invented in Persia.

The imposing palace of Ctesiphon or Hatra (now in modern Iraq) is much better known because of a sizable vaulted arch. This city was built by the Parthians in the 2^nd century BC as the capital of their empire. Ctesiphon/Hatra was conquered by the Sassanids in 226 AD, who turned it into a true metropolis worthy to serve as their capital. I seem to remember that the arch or at least the human heads in the surrounding walls were attacked by IS fanatics, but I couldn’t find a confirmation to that end.

Little information about the Sassanid empire transpires beyond the borders of modern Iraq and Iran, despite the grand cities these kings built using their precious craftsmanship as metal workers and gem engravers. They also took care of translating much of the existing western and eastern literature into Pahlavi, the Sassanid language.

Results of latest excavations in ancient Myra

This year’s excavations (2020) were concentrated around the Roman Theater. Archaeologists hoped to find remnants from earlier constructions that would complete the picture of Myra (see: Ancient Myra from Finike) we have until now.

Their search was rewarded when they unearthed a small Hellenistic theater underneath the Roman construction. Also, sections of walls were retrieved as well as a number of bronze, lead, and silver artifacts and various ceramics.

[Picture from the Hurriyet Daily News]

The most impressive find, however, was the collection of some 50 terracotta figurines. They represented male and female figures, gods and goddesses, some children and women with children, and cavalry figurines. Inscriptions from the 2^nd-1^st century BC were disclosed as well. Many of the artifacts still have traces of red, blue, and pink paint, making them particularly interesting.

As always, such scenes from daily life help to complete the information we have so far about the culture and beliefs of that time, in that area.

Once these figures are restored and cleaned, they will be exhibited at the Museum of Lycian Civilizations, which has been created inside the walls of Hadrian’s Granary in Andriake, the harbor of Myra (see: Andriake’s Museum has opened). 

Another Alexander fort?

It is entirely by accident that I came across the mention of The Citadel of Alexander the Great in Farah, Afghanistan. I must confess that I never looked for it as I didn’t expect to find much traces of the Macedonian king in that country.

Farah is the modern name for ancient Phrada, Alexandria in Drangiana or Alexandria Prophthasia. Besides being a fortress, the site made headlines because of the famous conspiracy of Philotas that occurred in 330 BC (see: The Philotas Affair). After the treachery of Philotas was brought to a good end – at least for Alexander – Alexandria in Drangiana was renamed Alexandria Prophthasia, appropriately meaning “Anticipation” since Alexander anticipated widespread consequences and acted before the others could attack him.

[Alexander's Citadel, from Michael Yon On-Line]

The events as told by Curtius unfolded in and around Alexander’s tent. That is probably the reason why I was not looking for a nearby fortress of any kind. On the other hand, it has not been established with certitude that Alexandria Prophthasia is to be found on the site of Farah either.

Under these circumstances, it is not unreal to assume that local legend has its own truth and that the Citadel of Farah was once occupied by Alexander and his Macedonians. Reaching a diameter of approximately one square kilometer, its size is impressive enough. Even today, the earthen walls, which initially were about 15 meters high, crown the hill next to Farah’s bazaar.

Farah as all of Afghanistan, unfortunately, lacks in-depth archaeological research and excavations. Alexander’s occupation may, after all, be resting on local folklore. Another theory is that the citadel was built by the Zoroastrians in the days of Darius I (the Great), i.e., in the 6^th century BC. This would mean that it already existed when Alexander arrived.

After the king’s death, the Seleucids ruled the region until in the 2^nd century BC the Graeco-Bactrians emerged followed by the Parthians and eventually, the Sacae.

It is not surprising that because of the repeated later additions and transformations, the origin of this fort remains enigmatic. The Citadel is in deplorable condition, and recent occupations by the Soviet army and the Mujahedeen fighters have led to serious disrepair of the site.

All is not lost, it seems since funds are being requested officially with the Ministry of Information and Culture to restore the historic site. 

It will take much effort and even more time to disclose the story behind these walls, especially since so much of Afghanistan is in dear need of excavation and protection (see: Saving Afghanistan’s Incredible Heritage).

Boarding a cruise ship in antiquity

Archimedes and his “Eureka” are common knowledge, but few people know that he designed an enormous cruise ship, the Syracusia.

It happened during the reign of King Hieron II of Syracuse, who in 240 BC ordered Archias of Corinth to execute the plans. The design was a very ambitious one, and we may wonder how on earth anyone in antiquity could possibly build the biggest and largest vessel ever. Money clearly was not an issue, for it seems that even the best was good enough! What’s more surprising is that the project was completed in one year by 300 craftsmen.

Athenaeus gives us a very detailed description of the Syracusia and its cargo. She could carry 1940 passengers, soldiers, and crew, and boasted plush stables for twenty horses, each with its own stall. Next was a storage room for the horses’ fodder and the quarters reserved for the riders and their slaves.

Figures from antiquity are not always reliable, but it is generally accepted that the Syracusia had a length of 110 meters, which is more than twice the largest merchant ship in those days.

Wood from the Etna was implemented, and the doors were made of cypress and citrus wood. Hemp had been imported from Iberia to make the cables, whereas pitch and more hemp came from the Rhone Valley. As soon as one deck of the ship was completed, it was covered with slabs of lead. 

The upper deck was supported by three-meter-high Atlantes or Telamones, replacing regular columns (see: The Valley of Temples at Akragas). The very top of the ship was a promenade reserved for the guests who could wander through gardens filled with different species of trees and flowers. These were watered through well-hidden lead pipes. Individual sections of this deck were made more comfortable with shaded roofs or tents covered with branches of ivy and vine. The layout inevitably led the guests to the Temple of Aphrodite, paved with agate. It was furnished with statues, and its walls were covered with frescoes. The entire ship was further adorned with statues and vases, painted walls, and fancy earthenware. Ivory and precious marble were lavishly used.

The second deck served as lodging for the passengers and counted 142 cabins, all paved with mosaics. Together, these individual pavements told the whole story of the Iliad. The guests could enjoy the comforts of a bathroom and a gymnasium, relax in a common dining room, or withdraw in the serene setting of the library and drawing room. The entertainment of the passengers was guaranteed!  

An onboard kitchen was a must, and Athenaeus confirmed that there were ovens and mills. Freshwater was stored near the head of the ship in a cistern that could hold as much as 78,000 liters. This water tank was caulked with pitch and covered with tarpaulins. Another cistern contained seawater to store the cook’s fish supply. This one, in turn, was coated with lead. Nothing is said about the service on board, the people responsible for the maintenance, and the cleaning.

The Syracusia also had its own army on board,  which, according to the sources, varied between 200 and 400 men. They were housed on a special deck in front of the ship where a giant catapult was mounted. This machine could shoot a stone weighing ninety kilograms to a distance of 200 meters. Eight towers, each manned with two archers and four men in full armor, further assured the defense of this unique vessel against any possible attack. The ship was additionally equipped with four wooden defense towers. The crew to steer this oversized ship was probably handpicked. It is said there were twenty banks of rowers. The entire ship was protected by a surrounding palisade, making enemy boarding impossible. 

All the components of the Syracusia were beyond normal proportions as Archimedes clearly thought out of the box! Besides, this is one example where his famous screw was successfully implemented to pump out the bilge water.

The number of provisions on board was equally huge. Athenaeus once again provides the facts and figures: 90,000 bushels of grain, 10,000 amphorae of Sicilian salt fish (is this the famous garum?), some 500-600 tons of wool (for what purpose?), and 20,000 talents were spent on “other cargo”. All these goods were stored in the lowest deck.

To ensure safe anchoring, the Syracusia counted eight iron anchors. Unfortunately, these were used only once because that huge ship made only one single trip across the Mediterranean to Alexandria in Egypt. It is important to realize that only a few ports were large enough to receive this size of vessel. As far as I know, besides Syracuse, only Rhodes, Pergamon, and probably Portus/Rome offered the necessary space and maneuverability for the Syracusia. 

In the end, all King Hieron could do, it seems, was to present the Syracusia as a gift to Ptolemy III Euergetes. It was eventually renamed Alexandreia. Otherwise, nobody knows what happened to this proud, colossal ship afterward.

[The picture of the mosaic representing the Death of Archimedes is from NYU Mathematics]

The concept of the caravanserai

It was in Turkey that I saw my very first caravanserai, probably the best example around, and it left an everlasting impression. It happened in the busy town of Kervansaray, halfway between Aksaray and Konya.

This was many years ago, and at the time, I was told that the Ottomans built hans (storage areas) and caravanserais (inns) to protect and accommodate the merchants moving on the busy caravan routes, like, for instance, the Silk Road. Large caravans of camels carrying silk and spices from China would make their way to Bursa, the then capital of the Ottoman Empire. These convenient stopovers were meant to stimulate business, of course. However, they also served as social gathering places and eventually led to further expansion of the Empire.

Later on, I discovered that these caravanserais could be found alongside the entire network of trade routes, mainly throughout southeastern Europe and Asia. Also, the very concept was not an Ottoman invention as I was led to believe initially, but existed already in Achaemenid Persia and even in Assyria.

All in all, I always found these caravanserais highly fascinating, but my encounter with the Sultan Han or Sultanhani in Kervansaray always remains my standard reference point. This quite impressive building covers a surface of 4,900 m2 and dates from 1226. It is much larger than a castle and is fortified similarly, with strong defense towers at the corners. It has a rectangular shape, much deeper than wide, with one single entrance gate to ensure security. This gate is decorated with lace brickwork, as seen on mosques, and gives access to a large open courtyard measuring 44 x 58 meters. At its center stands a square, two-story high kiosk-mosque, which is said to be the oldest example in Turkey.

Along the inner wall on the right runs a shady arcade in front of the merchants’ sleeping quarters. The opposite side is mainly occupied by a hamam where the tired traveler can relax. At the far end of this courtyard, there seems to be another gate, but this is the entrance to the area where the merchants could safely store their goods and shelter their horses, camels, and donkeys. This space with high vaults reminds me of a cathedral, ensuring warmth in winter and coolness in summer. High above the transept, a small octagonal windowed dome acts as a lantern, filtering the light. It strikes me as a comfortable, safe haven where the weary traveler could rest in peace. This important meeting point was also used to sell or swap their merchandise. This is so much more ingenious than one can imagine!

Another, very much commercialized caravanserai is the one in Ilhara in Cappadocia. This one has been heavily restored to be used for the entertainment of tourists.

A few years later, I visited the han of Alara-han on the road from Alanya to Antalya. This building is relatively small and measures only 34.5 x 45m. An inscription above the entrance gate tells us that it was built in 1231 by Alaeddin Keykubad I. It is said that it served the needs of the sultan when he traveled from Konya to his winter quarters in Alanya. Maybe that explains the size. Although this han is hailed for its construction technique, details, and proportions, I am not impressed. It has been converted into a true tourist attraction with the inevitable souvenir shops, restaurants, and gathering places of all kinds.

In Syria, I am confronted with the caravanserai of Qalaat al-Madiq, actually located at the foot of the ancient city of Apamea. This is a sizable building from the 16^th century displaying a fully paved courtyard. In the middle is a stairway that once led to the well, but it has now been sealed off. Overall, the caravanserai has not been tended with care, but interestingly, it houses a few select finds from Apamea. The best and most beautiful artifact is the Roman mosaic of Socrates and the Wise Men from the 3^rd century AD.  Unfortunately, I am not allowed to take pictures inside!

Iran, in turn, came with its own surprises of caravanserais. Here, they often stand in the middle of the desert, battered and withered by the wind and sand. Their lonely location is usually connected to the precious qanats that brought the much-needed water to the site (see: The qanats, one of the greatest inventions of mankind).

Nongobade exhibits an entire series of such vital stopovers. Well-preserved is the caravanserai from the Seljuk era, 13th century, followed by another one from Safavid times, i.e., 17th century. The old city of Na’in at the edge of Iran’s Central Desert seems to have grown around its caravanserai and nearby cistern, whose water supply was guaranteed by qanats. The adjacent wind towers added to the comfort of the caravans.

In Isfahan, the capital created and built by Shah Abbas in 1598, the Abbasi Hotel is worth a visit since it was initially another important caravanserai. Unlike the “modernization” of the Alara-han, this conversion into a luxurious hotel is a success story. The large central courtyard has been transformed into a lush garden with fountains and pleasant alleys. Knowing the world-famous Maidan Square, the size of this construction is not surprising. For Shah Abbas, big was better, and that idea has spread all over his city. The story goes that he built 999 of these caravanserais. True or not, in any case, Abbas thought that people would believe that number rather than if he rounded it to one thousand. PR avant la lettre, yes?

Last but not least, I have to mention Uzbekistan in Central Asia. We are well aware that Bukhara and Samarkand stand on the Silk Road, and it is obvious to find caravanserais in those cities. I may not have noticed all of them, but in Bukhara, for instance, I visited the Sayfiddin Caravanserai from the 19^th century, which is now one of the places selling carpets and other handicrafts.

On the road from Bukhara to Samarkand, I passed the Barboti Malik caravanserai from the 11^th century. The place is pretty isolated, more in the middle of nowhere than alongside a major route. This caravanserai is in a pretty poor state; only the façade has been re-erected, while all the other outer and inner walls are only reconstructed to a height of approximately one meter. It is easy to imagine what a safe haven such a place must have been to the traveler, considering the surrounding hostile lands. On the other side of the road is the ever-required water reservoir, a Sardova from the 14^th century. This is an impressive vaulted construction that protects the water from dust and pollution while offering a clean spot to drink and water the animals. To me, it is evident that this entire construction covers an old well that has been used over the centuries by local sheep and cattle herders, as well as by the merchants on this busy east-west road.

The sheer number of these hans and caravanserais is inevitably linked to the Silk Road that crisscrossed Eurasia in general (see: The Silk Road, some historical aspects of this trade route). 

For me, of course, the diversity and presence of these caravanserais give an insight into the welcome stops Alexander may have encountered on his desert crossings. It is impossible that they served the entire Macedonian army, but the proximity of water must have been a precious asset.

After all, Alexander followed the old Persian Roads whenever possible, and these were strung with such relay posts every 30 or 40 kilometers or so. The posts certainly could not provide fresh horses for an army. However, I secretly think that the king himself may have “borrowed” an animal or two during his wild pursuit of Darius in northeast Persia. In any case, he must have welcomed whatever comfort they offered and, in these vast deserts, water was a major commodity.

Human remains found at Persepolis

Dredging works on the ancient water conduits in Persepolis have exposed eleven human skeletons and two dog skeletons. They were found near an unfinished gate leading to the courtyard of the Hall of the One-Hundred-Columns. A little later, two more human remains were unearthed.

According to the position of the skeletons, it has been established that this is not a burial site. The remains indicate that these people were killed and simply left behind.

Pending further study and closer examination, researchers tend to believe that these skeletons are related to Alexander’s conquest of Persepolis in 330 BC.

It will be interesting to hear what further information can be revealed about these skeletons. Are they male or female, civilians or soldiers, what is their age, and could it be determined whether they are Persians or Macedonians.