Old Buddhist complex discovered in Pakistan

Alexander the Great and the later Greco-Bactrian Empire with its unique artistic expression eventually led to the emergence of the Kushan Empire that ruled much of modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India from 30 AD to 375 AD.

It is remarkable that the common thread through that part of history is Buddhism, which existed already in Alexander’s day and still lives on today. Hellenistic art, however, was soon picked up by the Buddhist sculptors and painters to explode in fascinating and vivid artwork that lived on to the end of Kushan dynasty in the Gandhara civilization. 

The Swat region in Pakistan is very remote and only occasional archaeological excavations have been carried out. Consequently, today’s discovery of a Buddhist monastery in Barikot (Bazira in antiquity) from the 1^st century AD is headline news. 

It is a vast complex in the center of a small valley composed of several stupas, meditation halls and a school where philosophy was taught. The Buddhist monks lived in small cells cut out of the mountain walls above. 

The most remarkable feature at this Abbasahib-China Buddhist site are the fresco paintings. Six of these figures are intact and depict Buddha in different poses, including the Namaste (greeting) pose. The frescos are not only rare, they are said to be unique since no other example of such wall painting have been discovered so far in the Gandhara  area. It is difficult to see the real beauty of these paintings because they are set in niches situated right underneath the ceiling. Scholars speak of a new chapter in the historical records of early Buddhism in Swat. 

Until now, it was believed that Swat and Gandhara  possessed an important painting school but this could not be documented until these intact murals were found. A serious plea is made to preserve this unique archaeological site! 

Overall, there seem to be approximately 150 Buddhist heritage sites in the northwestern corner of Pakistan alone, including the Swat Valley. So many treasures are still hidden and awaiting to be discovered!

[Pictures from The Archaeology News Network]

The Gate of Cyrus at Pasargadae (near Persepolis)

About five years ago, I mentioned that the foundations of a city gate had been discovered in Pasargadae (see: Archaeological research resumed at Pasargadae). At that time and pending further research, it was assumed that it had probably been built by Cyrus the Great to celebrate his victories.

By now, archaeologists have been able to prove that this gateway had indeed been built upon the orders of Cyrus and that it was actually used from the reign of his son, Cambyses onward. Although the article published in the Archaeology News Network speaks of a gate near Persepolis, it is clear that we are talking about the same monument. After all, Pasargadae lies only 40 kilometers from Persepolis.

This imposing gate measured 30 x 40 meters and once stood 12 meters high. It was entirely made of mudbricks which were covered with glazed bricks as we know from Persepolis, for instance. However, the composition apparently was inspired by similar decorations from Babylon where the lower section was embellished with lotus flowers and the higher portion of the wall displayed mythical animals.

The colors have faded dramatically but the outlines of the flowers and animals are not too difficult to recognize.

Also noteworthy is the fact that the central rectangular room of 8 x 12 meters bore cuneiform inscriptions in Babylonian and Elamite.

[Pictures are from the Archaeology News Network]

Excavations at the ancient city of Olba near Mersin

Neither the name of Olba nor the modern name of Uzuncaburç rings any bell with me. The city has been in the news lately because of the excavations that are scheduled to start this year (2021).

Olba is located off the beaten track, deep into the Taurus Mountains, roughly some 30 kilometers from Silifke. The oldest remains are visible down the deep ravine and seem to go back to the 6^th century BC, when Olba was the capital of the small kingdom of Neo-Hittite Pirindu, ruled by a certain Appuašu. The ruins of Hellenistic Olba are to be found about four kilometers further west and are blending in with those of the Roman Diocaesarea from the 1^st century AD.

The Acropolis was rightfully situated on top of a hill, 1040 meters above sea level. This made it an excellent observation post to see the enemy approaching from afar. The aqueduct and the cisterns that collected and distributed the precious drinking water to the Nympheums and onward are still very present. The water was taken from the Lamos River and was led through tunnels and over an aqueduct. This 25-meter-high aqueduct ran across the gorge of the Devils’ Valley and is 150 meters long. It was, in fact, constructed under Septimius Severus. This same water supply served to irrigate the surrounding fields.

Most of the city’s remains date from Roman times. The most striking monument is the rather well-preserved theater with a two-storey-high skene andt could seat 3,000 people. This is where the excavations will start later this year because much of the building stones are lying around after the walls collapsed as a result of an earthquake.

We also find an impressive Colonnaded Street, almost one kilometer long and still lined with many intact columns. The temple of Zeus has remarkably kept its temenos and monumental entrance gate. An inscription on the surrounding wall has revealed that Seleucos I Nicator was responsible for repairing the roof of this temple. These lines, by the way, confirm that Olba was already a sacred city in his days!

There also is a temple dedicated to Tyche, two city gates known as the Ceremonial Gate (7 meters high) and the Victory Gate, a great number of workshops and residential buildings. Outside the city limits lies the necropolis with a wide assortment of rock-cut graves, sarcophagi and other funeral monuments.

Rather than focusing on the archaeological treasures which Olba/Diocaesarea may reveal, Turkish authorities keep insisting on the tourism. If the site is worthwhile – as everything tends to indicate – tourists will come anyway

Where did Bucephalus die?

The question of whether Alexander’s dear mount died at the Battle of the Hydaspes or at another location around that time has been discussed at length and obviously without any conclusive result.

Today, I have been wondering where Bucephalus actually died. It so happened that a friend of mine forwarded me an article about Bufliaz, a town on the foothills of the Peer Rattan Range in India that claims to be the place where Alexander’s horse died.

Bufliaz, according to the locals, is named after Bucephalus (Bunifales) to commemorate his death. The town is located 39 kilometers east of Poonch or Punch, roughly some 120 km northeast of Taxila. This sounds pretty odd because it is generally accepted that from Taxila, Alexander marched to the southeast to the banks of the Hydaspes, where his famous battle against Porus was fought.

Although Bucephalus may have died at Bufliaz, that does not exclude the possibility that a city in his honor was built on the banks of the Hydaspes near modern Mong (see: Locating Alexandria Nicaea and Alexandria Bucephala).

Opinions about the burial site of Alexander’s prized horse vary widely. Jona Lendering cites Jhelum, and G. Huntingford identifies a mound west of Jhelum as Alexandria Bucephala. Sir Aurel Stein tends to believe that Alexander went south from Taxila and crossed the Hydaspes near modern Behra. This town is close to Mong and could be the very site where the Battle of the Hydaspes took place. Michael Wood, although he agrees with Stein to identify Mong as ancient Alexandria Nicaea, suggests Garjak as Alexandria Bucephala. Garjak is said to have its own legend of a magical horse. Last but not least, Mansoor Behzad, a local historian, supports the idea that Bucephalus was buried in Jalalpur Sharif, 75 km northeast of Bhera.

Clearly, the possibilities are endless, and in the end, we could only establish that Bucephalus died and was buried in that general area.

A few words about Alexander’s mints and coins

Coins with the image of Alexander were widespread and accepted throughout his empire and kept circulating in large numbers long after his death.

Research has revealed that the coins with Alexander's effigy started circulating much later than initially accepted. Until then, the currencies of Philip and Darius were familiar together with those minted by individual cities. We had to wait until after Alexander's victory at Issus in 333 BC to find the first mints to be established in Macedonia, Cilicia, and Phoenicia.

[Map of Alexander's mints (from Meadows 2014, map 1)] 

Frank Holt has made an excellent analysis of the Alexander coins in his book, The Treasures of Alexander the Great. The first coins were silver ones minted in Sidon and Tarsus between October 333 and September 332 BC. Gold coins emerged after his conquest of Tyre in July 332 BC. New mints were established in Asia Minor later on, apparently after his return from India.

During Alexander's lifetime, the known mints striking his coins were spread over 25 different locations such as:

Pella and Amphipolis in Macedonia

Lampsacus and Abydos on the Hellespont

Colophon, Magnesia, Miletus, Teos and Sardes in Asia Minor

Side and Tarsus in Pamphylia
Salamis, Citium, Amathus, Paphos on the island of Cyprus 

Myriandrus, Aradus, Byblos, Sidon, and Tyre on the eastern Mediterranean coast

Alexandria in Egypt

Damascus and Babylon further inland

Each of these mints had its own assigned type. Some produced only one kind of currency, while others could generate a wide scale ranging from small coins to drachms and tetradrachms. It is important to realize that the Alexander coins were minted according to the standard Attic drachma of 4.3 grams and that his tetradrachms weighed 17.2 grams. They helped to spread his image throughout the length and breadth of his empire, from the Eastern Mediterranean to Central Asia.

The silver collected from the Royal Persian treasuries contributed widely to the production of the tetradrachms. It has been estimated that between 333 and 290 BC (which is well after Alexander's death in 323 BC), approximately 60 million tetradrachms were produced, together with 66 million drachms and 12 million gold staters! Just imagine the vast amount of money's impact on the economy!

After the king's death, his successors kept the same currency system in place, although they gradually replaced Alexander's image with their own – still in Alexander-style.

The Numismatic Museum of Athens has a wide range of coins on display to pick our choice from. This trio of tetradrachms, for instance, displays the figures of Philip II on top and underneath in Alexander-style Lysimachos (left) and Ptolemy (right).

In comparison, Seleucos I, here depicted on a coin from the Antalya Museum, carries a more pronounced lion skin still entirely in the Alexander tradition.

Once the Diadochi became king in their own right over their newly delimited territories, their own effigy replaced the Alexander-inspired image, and the reverse of the coins rightfully carried the inscription, Basileus.

For a long time, coins carrying Alexander's image kept circulating because his veteran soldiers were used to receiving their payment in tetradrachms! 

Oenoanda in the heartland of Lycia

Oenoanda or Oinoanda lies only some 60 kilometers from Fethiye, right next to the modern village of İncealiler. It is one of those untouched sites, clearly off the beaten path of which there are many in Turkey. Such places are always very rewarding to be discovered and to be explored. It is so remote that even a seasoned archaeologist like Cevdet Bayburtluoglu strongly recommends not to venture there by yourself but to take a caretaker or a villager with you to be safe from sheepdogs. These dogs are fiercely defending and protecting the flock of sheep and goats they are supposed to guard and they readily attack any intruder. No kidding!

The climb up from İncealiler to Oenoanda takes about an hour over rough terrain. It seems that, apart from a few days in 1997, the Turkish authorities never allowed the city to be excavated. Yet, that does not make the site less exciting because one can discover it as we walk on.

[Picture: Ansgar Bovet, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons]

The most striking feature in the landscape is, as always, the theater that sits higher up the hill overlooking the valley below and offers a dramatic view of the Taurus Mountains. It has been cut out of the rock and its plan closely resembles that of Myra or Phaselis, for instance.

Inside the city walls, of which many stretches are easily spotted, we find the remains of the ancient city. Unfortunately, these have not been properly documented and only the most striking features catch the eye.

A well-recognizable avenue leads from the theater to the Agora. It has been compared to Harbor Street at Phaselis as it is bordered by two steps on either side. The Agora, which is entirely paved with marble, is another prominent feature. The surrounding buildings have not been identified although we may presume based on the broken columns and stones that there was at least one temple erected alongside as is customary. A series of three distinct arches has been identified as belonging to a Library.

Otherwise, bits of columns, capitals, architraves, cornices, pedestals and stones of all sizes with or without inscriptions are scattered around in great numbers. Another recognizable element in the rubble is the broken pipes and remains of an aqueduct that must have run all the way to the Baths in the northeastern corner of Oenoanda.

The origins of Oenoanda are rather obscure but based on its name which contains the letters “-nd” the foundation could go back as far as the 2^nd millennium BC. In any case, it has been documented that Oenoanda was part of a tetrapolis annexed to Lycia. Together with Kibyra, Oenoanda became part of the Lycian League which was formed in the early 2^nd century BC and they acquired two votes each. The six main cities: Xanthos, Pinara, Tlos, Patara, Myra, and Olympos were the administrative, judicial, military, financial, and religious centers and each received three votes in the meetings of the League.

Pending serious excavations, no evidence has been found about the pre-Hellenistic Era of Oenoanda.

The city gained importance it seems, after the severe earthquake of 144 AD, when they received 10,000 denarii from Opramoas of Rhodiapolis (see: Opramoas of Rhodiapolis) to construct a Bath. It may sound strange because its own citizen, Licinius Langus of Oenoanda donated 10,000 denarii to Myra in order to rebuild their theater and its portico. He could have invested in the reconstruction of his home tome in the first place, no?

Another famous citizen of Oenoanda was the wealthy philosopher Diogenes, who spent his entire fortune on an Epicurean inscription. He had found peace of mind in the teachings of Epicurus and in order to show the people in Oenoanda the road to happiness, he commissioned an inscription 80 meters long and more than 3 meters high which set out Epicurean doctrines in about 25,000 words.  The huge inscription was placed in the agora and its large inscribed letters were painted - nobody could miss seeing them. At that time, in 120 AD, it would have been the largest ancient inscription ever found. The text included a number of instructions, letters, and epitomes defining the basic principles of Epicuraeism. In other words, a guide to happiness.

Unfortunately, the wall disappeared. It may have been deliberately destroyed or hit by an earthquake, but the scattered blocks were mostly reused as building material elsewhere. The wall with whatever remained of Oenoanda fell into oblivion, probably during the 9^th century AD.

During the 19^th and 20^th centuries, many fragments of this precious inscription were found, analyzed and partially put back together like a giant puzzle. That is a gigantic task that is still ongoing.

Oenoanda is surrounded by necropolises on all sides. Rock graves typically appear on both the east and west sides of the city and from the road between İncealiler and Oenoanda many sarcophagi, mostly of the Lycian type, are easily spotted in the landscape.

Revelations from Kibyra in Turkey

It appears that I left my disclosure of Kibyra with the news that the site would open to the public in 2017 (see: The tempting site of Kibyra).

Last year's excavations yielded two important artifacts: an Asclepius statue and a Zeus-Serapis bust.

The 38-centimeter-high statuette of the Greek god of Health, Asclepius, was uncovered inside the so-called Caesarian, the Cult Temple of the Emperor. Kibyra was famous for its knowledge of medicine; thus, this discovery didn't come as a surprise. The figurine has been dated to the 2^nd century AD and was found in a layer of soil that showed traces of fire. It was broken into six pieces but could be restored and pieced back together.

[Picture from The Greek City Times]

The other object unearthed this time in the Roman Baths was the head of a bearded man. To the greatest joy of the archaeologists, the head fitted a bust made of Afyon marble discovered in these baths in 2019. The bust represents Serapis, an Egyptian god who was worshiped in combination with Zeus at the time. Zeus-Serapis was the god of the Underworld and Fertility, the main god of Alexandria.

Both artifacts have been moved to the Archaeological Museum of Burdur, where they will be exhibited very soon. 

Kibyra sat at the crossroads of important trade routes connected to Caria, Phrygia, and Pisidia. It was famous for its metallurgy, and as a result, the city minted its own coins from the mid-first century BC until the middle of the 3rd century AD.

Today's buildings are mainly constructions from Roman times and, more precisely, from after 23 AD, i.e. when the city was destroyed by a major earthquake. It was Emperor Tiberius who financed its reconstruction and renamed it Caesarea Kibyra.

Pompeii’s Antiquarium reopens at last

Very few people are aware that Pompeii has a museum of its own, generally known as the Antiquarium. This is not surprising because the premises have been closed since 1980, when they were damaged by a severe earthquake. From 2016 onward, some rooms were occasionally open for temporary exhibitions, but the Antiquarium’s own collection was entirely out of sight.

Today, after forty years, the Antiquarium has finally fully reopened. It offers an introduction to what Pompeii has to offer through its display of artifacts going back to the 4^th century BC.

[Silver table set known as the Moregine Treasure (Courtesy of Italy's Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities / Archaeological Park of Pompeii) Smithonian Mag]

Visitors will be treated to objects of daily use, including tableware, among which is a rare silver dining set. Also exhibited are more decorative items like frescos and mosaics, as well as an array of marble and bronze statues. The casts of people who fell victim to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD are also on display.

At the time of the disaster, it is estimated that Pompeii counted some 12,000 inhabitants. Although the majority of the population was able to escape the catastrophe, the total death toll in Pompeii and Herculaneum combined is estimated at a minimum of 2,000 people.

The first excavations in Pompeii started in 1738, but the museum was created only around 1873. Archaeology was still in its infancy, and excavations at the site were interrupted and restarted repeatedly, depending mainly upon the money that was made available. Work has intensified since 2012, when scholars and specialists would deploy all the modern technology that is available nowadays. Among the most recent discoveries is, for instance, a charcoal inscription suggesting that the eruption of Mount Vesuvius occurred in late October 79 AD and not in August as assumed till now.

[The goddess Venus stands on a quadriga drawn by elephants in this first-century A.D. fresco (Courtesy of Italy's Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities / Archaeological Park of Pompeii)  Smithsonian Mag]

We only have a vague idea of the museum’s content, and the bombing that occurred during World War II destroyed hundreds of artifacts. By 1948, however, the museum reopened but was forced to close once again in 1980 after being hit by a severe earthquake.  Since 2016, the museum has received several temporary exhibitions, but it is only now, in 2021, that all the rooms and all the treasures are accessible for all to admire!

The presence of Alexander in Byzantine times

It amazes me how time and again Alexander appears or reappears throughout history.

[Picture from the Archaeology News Network (Credit: Cyprus Dept. of Antiquities)]

Take for instance the latest excavations carried out on the site of Katalymmata ton Plakoton on the island of Cyprus, where a monumental ecclesiastical complex has been excavated. It has been established that this place is related to St John the Merciful, Patriarch of Alexandria, who also is the patron saint of Limassol, Cyprus.

Archaeologists have been working here since 2007 when a first basilica was unearthed. This turned out to be a burial monument measuring 36 meters in width by 29 meters in length. More recently, a second basilica was uncovered which was 47 meters long and 20 meters wide. Both sites have been dated to the second half of the 7^th century AD, probably around 616-617 AD.

The most important find at this second basilica is, as far as I’m concerned, a marble stele that shows a bust of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius – yet personified as Alexander the Great!

[Picture from the Archaeology News Network (Credit: Cyprus Dept. of Antiquities)]

It is noteworthy that this Heraclius became emperor in 610 AD and spent most of his life fighting the Persian Sassanids and the thread of the rising Muslim Empire.

At last, the Domus Tiberiana is made accessible

It is not always about discovering and excavating a site, it is also about making that site available to the public. It is very nice to see the pictures or short videos, but there is nothing like experiencing the visit of an archaeological site by yourself.

Domus Tiberiana - View from the Regia area

[Credit: Parco archeologico del Colosseo]

The good news these days is that after being closed for 40 years, the Domus Tiberiana, the Villa of Emperor Tiberius will be made accessible to the public by the end of this year. This edifice is part of the Palatine Hill and is located inside the perimeter of the archaeological park of the Coliseum in Rome.

Excavations carried out occasionally in the 1800s and in the 1900s had exposed sections of Tiberius' Villa and currently a new room is being unearthed that surely will expose the splendor of his days.

The Villa site has been scrutinized and excavated since the 1600s when it was used as a dump. In the next underlying layer, the remains of an entire family were exposed. They counted seven people that could have been killed during epidemic or another traumatic event that occurred in the 1200s. Digging deeper, coins from the 7^th century were found and below that layer the remains of a wall with a lamp still standing intact inside a niche were unearthed and belonged to the 4^th century AD.

The plan is to organize the visit of the Domus Tiberiana in such a way that the visitor can access several rooms that will include showcases displaying the luxuries of daily life.