Damascus after Alexander

Whether Alexander was in Damascus, either after the Battle of Issus or on his way from Egypt to Gaugamela, is a debate on its own which I will not tackle here. For now, I’m interested in Damascus after the disintegration of Alexander’s Empire and the imprints left by his successors and the Romans afterward.

After Alexander died in 323, the main competitors in Syria BC were Seleucos and Ptolemy, two of his generals who fought for their share of his empire, during which Damascus regularly changed hands. Seleucos I Nicator established his capital in Antioch-on-the-Orontes, today’s Antakya in Turkey, whereby the power of Damascus was annihilated. Later on, however, Demetrius III Philopator rebuilt Damascus according to the Hippodamian plan and renamed it Demetrias. 

But in 64 BC, Roman Emperor Pompey conquered the western part of Syria and occupied Damascus. He added the city to the others belonging to the Decapolis ( a group of ten cities on the eastern edge of the Roman Empire) as he considered it an important center for Graeco-Roman culture. In 37 AD, however, Caligula gave Damascus to the Nabataeans simply because he didn’t know what to do with it. So it happened that the Nabataean King Aretas IV Philopatris ruled Damascus from his own capital, Petra, till, in 106, the kingdom was finally added to the Roman Empire. Damascus fell under the supervision of Rome, and in 222, it was promoted to “Colonia” by Septimius Severus. The city prospered during the Pax Romana and acted as a caravan stop on the trade routes from southern Arabia, Palmyra, and Petra to and from the Silk Road to China. Damascus was the turning point for all the high-demand luxury goods in Rome.

It is a rainy day in Damascus when I finally leave the souks, which are darker, dirtier, and stuffier than the bazaars of Istanbul. I’m happy to see familiar Corinthian columns and Roman arches from the 2nd-3rd century amidst the many stalls with fruit and vegetables seeking shelter under white and bright blue tarps – a bothersome factor in my photographic eye. The open space after the souks looks confusing, partly because of the merchants offering their goods and partly because of the ruins that don’t match any pattern. The traffic of cars, carts, scooters, and many people with heavy plastic bags fills the square in a hectic cohesion. You don’t know where to look to move across to the opposite side.

The opposite side is, in fact, the exterior wall of the Umayyad Mosque that matches the old 385 x 305 meters precinct that held the colossal Roman Temple of Jupiter. The massive limestone blocks on the lower part are unmistakably Roman. Obsolete entrance gates have been blocked, often leaving only the refined earlier frame decorations. On top of the eastern wall is a Babylonian feature, the so-called merlons, a step-pyramid-like architectural decoration. Each corner of this precinct used to have a defense tower, but when the temple was turned into a mosque, only two towers remained, serving as the base for its square minarets: the Cat Bey Minaret and the Eesa Minaret. This last one is the tallest and is also called the Minaret of Jesus because many Muslims believe that Jesus will appear here on the Day of Judgment. Later, a third square minaret was added, the Arus-Minaret, i.e., the Minaret of the Bride.

Today, the mosque has its own entrances, the most beautiful one reserved for the male believers, whereas the women have to use the side door. Curious tourists like me are led to the back door, of course. The famous Umayyad Mosque occupies a prime spot as it was erected on top of the old Temple of Hadad (1000 BC), the local Semitic god of storms and lightning. Under Roman rule during the first century AD, a new temple dedicated this time to Jupiter was built right on top, making it the largest sanctuary in the east. In Byzantine times in the late 4th century, the Christians replaced the temple with a cathedral consecrated to John the Baptist, and it is said that his head is kept inside in its own precious shrine. 

Nothing changed much after the Muslim conquest of 636 as the believers simply shared the cathedral, the Muslims using the eastern side of the church, and the Christians praying on the west side. But this arrangement changed during the reign of Caliph Al-Walid I of the Umayyads. He thought that the church had become too small for his congregation, and he concluded an agreement with the Christians to purchase their cathedral before taking it down. And so it happened that between 706 and 715, the present mosque was erected. The construction was inspired by the Mosque of Prophet Mohammed in Medina. It became a place for personal and collective worship, religious education, political meetings, administration of justice, and helping the sick and poor. It sounds strange to hear the Caliph asking the Emperor of Byzantium for 200 skilled craftsmen to work on the decoration of his mosque – a Muslim asking a Christian for works of art – but that’s what he did. The Caliph’s request was granted, and the result is this construction that definitely shows Byzantine influences. In the end, thousands of craftsmen were involved, including Byzantine, Coptic, Persian, and Indian. In those days, the mosque was the most impressive and the largest in the Islamic world. It was considered as being one of the wonders of the ancient world.

I know the inner courtyard and mural mosaics only from pictures, and I’m totally unprepared for what I’m about to see. The vast inner square is surrounded on three sides by an arched gallery supported by a mix of pillars that mostly lost their marble covers and by Corinthian columns. The fourth side runs the entire length of the mosque itself. The stunning mosaics representing paradise or possibly the oasis Ghouta made by the Byzantine craftsmen cover the upper part of the gallery's walls. The quality of their work is absolutely superb. They used a combination of colored glass, stones, and marble enhanced with pieces of silver and gold to depict idyllic houses amidst lush green trees and plants along an imaginary stream. It was considered the largest mosaic in the ancient world, covering over 4,000 m2. The four-meter-high wall below the mosaics has generally lost its veined marble, leaving sore holes where the marble plates once were fixed to the rough wall. A separation band decorated with reliefs of vines and grapes separated the marble part from the mosaics, but only a few fragments survived. Because of that strong Byzantine influence, I often feel like walking in Istanbul instead of Damascus!

The octagonal Treasury rests on shortened Corinthian columns in the corner of this vast courtyard. Its walls are entirely covered with mosaics similar to those on the walls and applied on a gold background typical in Byzantine art. It dates from the same time as the construction of the mosque. The libation fountain, however, is more recent and definitely is pure Islamic with its elegant curved roof.

I am very much impressed by this space. The rain has stopped by now, and a shy sun is trying to light up the courtyard adding sparkles to the mosaics, but it is mainly the reflection of the entire complex on the wet marble floor that is so unique. I would never have thought that rain could add so much to the beauty of the place!

By now, it is time to turn to the magnificent Umayyad Mosque itself, whose outside walls match exactly the Roman Temple of Jupiter, 157 meters long and 100 meters wide. The façade carries a Byzantine design, especially around the main entrance, decorated with similar mosaics to the surrounding walls. The mosque is crowned with a cupola with nothing Islamic but looks rather Byzantine. A very unusual but pleasant combination.

When I step inside, the actual size of the mosque really hits me. It’s enormous and surpasses any mosque I’ve seen before. I even find it more powerful and spacious than the Aya Sophia in Istanbul, for instance; this may be due to my mental match with the earlier Temple of Jupiter or the rectangular shape of the sanctuary, which automatically creates an optical space. The prayer hall is divided into three aisles, supported by tall Corinthian columns reused from the previous Temple of Jupiter and from the Church of Mary in Antioch-on-the-Orontes. The interior reminds me of our Christian churches, but here the columns support long wooden beams and a row of short columns on top of them with small arches above the larger ones underneath. I wonder if the Roman temple had a similar wooden ceiling – it could be.

This was one of the first mosques using this kind of layout (the other was the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem), where the visitors could easily see the mihrab, the minbar, and each other. The interior is generally kept all white, with here and there a few mosaics and geometric motives. This Umayyad Mosque has been rebuilt several times after severe fires broke out, in 1069, 1401, and 1893, the last one damaging most of the large mosaics. What we see today has been partially restored.

Here, Muslim women generously can move freely through the entire left aisle with a special corridor leading to the shrine of John the Baptist and the baptismal font. The men can wander through the largest part, the central and right aisle. In this case, the tourists are genuinely privileged, for they can walk freely throughout the mosque. According to one of the legends, the head of John the Baptist was found when the Christian cathedral was demolished, complete with skin and hair. It has been placed in a wrought shrine, and since it is supposed to possess magical power, people still flock around the shrine to touch the metal grille surrounding it. The floor is, as usual, entirely covered with carpets muffling the sounds, which adds to the serenity of the place. Through an open door, I catch a glance of the courtyard, a contre-jour picture framing a couple of women staring outside. Such a peaceful scene.

In fact, there is nothing left in Damascus that could refer to Hellenistic times, as all traces generally have been erased and supplanted by Roman constructions anyway. We know, however, that the Romans used Greek and Aramaic foundations to lay out Damascus, covering an area of approximately 1,500 x 750 meters inside its protective walls. Damascus counted seven city gates, but only the Bab Sharqi on the east side survived.

Although built according to the Hippodamian plan with straight streets and crossroads, only one such street remains: the “Street Called Straight” or “Via Recta,” running east-west through old Damascus from the Bab Sharqi Gate to the Suq Madhat Pasha Gate, actually 20 meters north of the Bab al-Jabiya Gate at the western end. However, in those days, the street was 26 meters wide and 1.5 km long, flanked by covered porticos with shops. I think it must have looked prettier than the modern souks! Today’s Via Recta is much narrower and lays 4-5 meters above ancient levels.

The monumental Roman arch (or Gate of Sun), approximately 700 meters west of Bab Sharqi, was excavated in 1947 and reconstructed at the present street level, on the exact spot where the Decumanus (now Via Recta) and the Cardo (north-south road) met. On both sides of the Via Recta, remains of the dug-out Roman columns have been put back in place – a very revealing sight! The city gate has kept its Roman features with a wide central arch for cart traffic and two smaller arches on each side for pedestrians. The ancient city walls are generally well preserved, but it is hard to figure out which parts are still Roman and which have been added later. They are a complete mixture of stones, bricks, blocked entrance doors, and opened windows from the houses built against the wall afterward.

This summarizes the Greek and Roman remains of the city. More ruins must be hidden five meters underground, as the excavated city gate and columns along the Via Recta have proven, but if or when future digs will be considered and carried out is a totally different story. Today Damascus has 1.7 million inhabitants, and the very core of the city (within the ancient walls) is very densely populated. I can’t see by what magic archaeologists will ever be able to map out the remains of so many superposed layers of occupation spreading over hundreds of centuries. Not anytime soon, anyway.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Damascus]

Apamea, heritage of Alexander

If we believe ancient Egyptian, Ugarian, and Hittite texts, Apamea goes back to 2000-1000 BC. Under Persian rule, it was called Pharnake. Still, the city entered my field of interest with Alexander the Great, who left a garrison behind and renamed it Pella after his hometown. The name Apamea appeared in 300/299 BC when Seleucos, a successor of Alexander, created one of the grandest cities in the east.

We have to go back to the mass wedding in Susa in 324 BC when Alexander arranged a mixed wedding party for about one hundred of his close friends and generals to bring Greece and Persia together. Seleucos' bride was to be Apame, the daughter of Spitamenes of Bactria. This union must have been happy, for it is the only one to survive Alexander's untimely death in 323 BC. Apame accompanied her husband during all of his expeditions and campaigns, which could not have been very comfortable traveling. In any case, after conquering the east, Seleucos decided to move the capital of his empire from Babylon to Antioch-on-the-Orontes, today's Antakya, Turkey. The region pleased him so much that he decided to dedicate another beautiful city to Pella, which was founded initially for Alexander's veterans. He renamed it Apamea after his wife. Apamea became his most important city, together with Antakya mentioned above. Laudetia, as Antakya was known by Seleucos, was named after his mother. Seleucia-on-the-Tigris was named after himself – yes, his empire reached all the way from the Mediterranean to the Indus! Seleucos truly moved in Alexander's footsteps!

The location of Apamea is worthy of Alexander, high above the fertile valley of the Orontes River, right on the junction of the busy road that connected the east with Antioch. Approaching today's town of Afamia, the visitor will see antique Apamea atop a trapezoidal hill just behind the new settlement, shining like a crown jewel. Vast parts of the 16 km-long city walls from the 2nd century BC and more than one hundred watchtowers can still be seen, sometimes reaching as high as 10 meters. Apamea, I'm told, is four times the size of the more familiar Palmyra.

Pompey showed little consideration for Apamea when, in 64 BC, the city became part of the Roman Empire. Yet it rose again and peaked at the beginning of the 1st century AD when the total population ran close to half a million (of which 380,000 were slaves), counting 40,000 horses and 500 fighting elephants. Unfortunately, Apamea was entirely destroyed during the cataclysmic earthquake on 13 December 115 AD (an estimated 7.5 on the scale of Richter).

This was the time to reform Apamea from a typical Hellenistic city into a Roman one. We may owe it to Emperor Trajan, who resided in nearby Antioch-on-the-Orontes at the time of the earthquake and nearly lost his life in the disaster, to rebuild Apamea. He kept the original Hippodamian plan, which fitted the known Roman pattern anyway, with a Cardo and a Decumanus. Apamea was enhanced with bath houses and public fountains, and near the original Hellenistic Agora, a new temple was dedicated to Belos or Baal. Near the city walls, a vast theater was built on the prior Hellenistic foundations, and it equaled the theater of Ephesus with a seating of over 20,000 persons! Roman/Byzantine Apamea lasted until it was conquered by the invading Muslims in 636 AD.

I have great expectations when I finally visit Apamea. For years, I have been in awe of the magnificent columns and mosaics that are the showpieces at the Archaeological Museum in Brussels. There, I saw the spiral columns for the first time, and when I met them later on in Sardes and Ephesus, I mentally kept calling them "Apamea columns." It is worth mentioning that the area was first excavated by Belgian archaeologists in the 1930s, and the restorations started in the 1970s – hence the museum pieces.

I enter Apamea from the north, next to the Antioch Gate. I immediately stop in my tracks since what I see is a Hellenistic city gate, two round towers just like the better-preserved ones that guard the entrance to Perge, Turkey – definitely a piece of the heritage left by Alexander through Seleucos, of course.

Turning to the south, I face the most impressive Cardo Maximus, once a busy commercial thoroughfare and as Roman as you can find. And amazing it is: nearly two kilometers long and 38 meters wide, lined initially with 1200 columns, of which 400 are still standing, each approximately 9 meters high and generally crowned with Corinthian capitals. The spiral columns, I expect, show up further down the road next to the Agora; till then, they are just plain.

On my left, behind the colonnade and paved sidewalk, stand well-preserved facades of shops, up to the first floor with decorated window and door frames – ready for use, it seems. The pavement of the Cardo is pretty much intact and clearly shows the traces left by the many carts that delivered the goods up and down the street.

The Cardo, which almost resembles a boulevard, is crossed by two Decumani. The first crossing is marked by a 14-meter-high votive column resting on a triangular base, smack in the middle of the straight road – something I haven't seen anywhere before. Walking over this centuries-old pavement flanked by these giant guards looking down on you is quite something! The gray clouds blend with the gray weathered columns and contribute to the melancholic atmosphere.

Further down the Cardo, I find the Roman Baths built by Emperor Trajan (116-117). They are positioned so that the water can flow down with gravity from the city walls. They were rebuilt and renewed time and again until the 7th century and were still functioning during the rule of the Ayyubids and Mamluk. Excavation works are underway, and earthen water and sewage pipes have recently been exposed. A little further on, I recognize the inevitable Nymphaeum, and behind it, I discover the public latrines fit to receive 80-90 people – a cozy place. Closer to the city center stands a column decorated with a relief of Bacchus carrying the thyrsus staff and framed with vine motifs. This was once the basis of an arch signaling the entrance to a side street.

Finally, I reach the immense Agora (300 x 45 meters), where the typical spiral columns along the Cardo replace the otherwise unfluted ones. For me, this is how Apamea should be! After closer scrutiny, I noticed that the spirals twist alternatively to the right and to the left, which, from a distance, make a V-pattern creating a zigzag effect. Apparently, they date back to 166 AD. Three of these columns have a console holding a statue of Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus, and Marcus Aurelius. Another one carried a statue in honor of Lucius Julius Agrippa, a leading citizen of Apamea, set up by Quintus Munatis Marinus, who had the title of Beneficiarius as he helped to rebuild the city after the devastating earthquake of 115 AD. Further West are the remains of the famous Temple of Zeus Belos, known for its oracles and heavily visited by the believers, which included Emperor Septimius Severus. This temple was used without interruption till Christianity took over in 384-385 AD.

This is where I have to end my visit. The day is hiding behind the lead-colored clouds, and I deeply regret that I cannot take a picture of the golden sunrays illuminating these majestic colonnades. It is too late to walk down to the famous and grand theater at the end of the next Decumanus.

Apamea is a top location to visit as the remains from Hellenistic and Roman times are so vividly present. As I mentioned above, the city suffered heavily from the Muslim invasion, leading to its decline. During the 7th century, however, Apamea experienced a short revival with the coming of the Crusaders. In 1106, Prince Tancredi from Normandy arrived at the head of the First Crusade, later to be promoted to Prince of Galilea and Regent of the Principality of Antioch. In 1157 and again in 1170, northern Syria was hit by a series of severe earthquakes, destroying Apamea and cities like Hama, Emesa (Homs), and Antioch-on-the-Orontes (Antakya).

It is certain that even in antiquity, Apamea appealed to everyone's imagination and received many important guests. Cleopatra VII stopped here on her way back from the Euphrates when she accompanied Marc Anthony on his campaign against the Armenians. Septimius Severus arrived in 179 as Legatus of the Fourth Scythian Legion, and later, in 215, Emperor Caracalla paid a visit on his way home after staying in Egypt. And now it is my turn!

At the foot of this marvelous city lies a caravanserai built around 1524 by the Ottomans, where merchants and pilgrims could rest and spend a night on their way to the Orontes Valley. The building has recently been restored and serves as a museum for the finds from Apamea, mainly grave steles and mosaics from private houses, among which is the exceptional mosaic of Socrates and the Wise Men. However, the largest and probably the best-preserved mosaic is to be found in the Archaeological Museum in Brussels.

[Click here to view all the pictures of Apamea]

Deir Ezzor on the Euphrates in Syria

Deir Ezzor is one of those cities whose foundations go back to the third millennium BC, the days of King Sargon I, till it fell into the hands of King Hammurabi (reigned 1792 to 1750 BC), followed by the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, and the Persians. It is located some 450 km northeast of Damascus on the banks of the Euphrates River. 

When Alexander the Great marched through Syria, Deir Ezzor became part of his empire. After his death in 323 BC, the country was ruled by Seleucos, one of his former generals. In Roman times, this green oasis was a crossroad on the trade route that connected the Mediterranean Sea with India. We may not forget to mention Queen Zenobia, who in the third century fervently opposed the Roman presence and occupied the city. 

By the fourth century, Deir Ezzor fell under the rule of Aleppo and afterward became part of the Ayyubid and the Mamluk empires. Tamerlane (read more under the Label Central Asia) and his Mongols totally destroyed Deir Ezzor in 1401, after which the city sank into the desert and disappeared.  

It is only in recent years, when oil was discovered in the region, that Deir Ezzor was revived, and this is what we are seeing today.

The confrontation with the Euphrates River is always an exciting experience. The river was used as a frontier line for eons and still is – in fact, the other side (east) is where Mesopotamia starts. The French, who arrived here at the end of the 19th century, built a narrow suspension bridge, a mini San Francisco Bay bridge, executed by nobody less than engineer Eiffel! Recently, a wider modern bridge has been built for motorized traffic. It is an unforgettable adventure to cross this old bridge on foot, as it is now reserved for pedestrians, and to feel the soft swinging movement caused by our steps. The strong current of the Euphrates is clearly visible from up here, and setting foot on Mesopotamian soil for just a short moment is definitely worth the detour. 

 

This is the story in a nutshell. Unfortunately, no traces have been found of Alexander’s presence here – not yet, at least.

[Click here for more pictures of the cities along the Euphrates]

Valley of the Thracian Kings, Bulgaria

In my opinion, there are other and more urgent priorities in Bulgaria than to stimulate tourism and archaeological projects, but the Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister apparently think otherwise. They have decided to spend 3,5 million Leva (approx. 12,25 million Euros) on the entire project. 

A share of 3,5 million Leva (approx. 1,75 million Euros) is allotted to boost tourism in the Valley of the Thracian Kings in the Kazanlak area and study a Thracian tomb near the village of Buzovgrad. One million Leva will go towards archaeological studies, two millions towards infrastructure, and 500,000 Leva to improving water supply and sanitation. Bulgarian authorities hope that the Valley of the Thracian Kings will be added to UNESCO’s list of protected cultural heritage since they plan to link ten Thracian tombs together.

These Thracian tombs deserve much more attention than they are getting presently, for they are so unique! Several years ago, I had the opportunity to visit the Kazanlak Tomb, and I was very disappointed to learn on the spot that I only would see a replica. The original tomb was sealed off to protect it from outside influences; the inside air was kept at a steady temperature to guarantee the highest possible conservation level. A very understandable measure, of course, but utterly disappointing when you come all the way to see a mere copy. I hope this new project will enable the curious visitor to see part of the magnificent original wall paintings. 

This was several years ago after visiting an exhibition about the history of Bulgaria. It was an overwhelming experience, and I remember how I stared at the map of Bulgaria in an unsuccessful attempt to recognize any of the cities. All I could match with my memory was the capital Sofia and the town of Plovdiv because this was ancient Philippopolis founded by Philip II of Macedonia. The country was bordered in the north by Romania and in the south by Greece. Its eastern frontier touched the Black Sea, that much I knew, but that was about all. The exhibited artifacts were stunning, reaching back as far as 8,000 BC. This date was so abstract that I thought I was walking in circles when I arrived at the showcases with pieces from 800 BC! The artifacts showed such a high level of craftsmanship, an eye for details, and delicate and intricate work of precious metals, wood, bone, etc., that I was utterly baffled. I had no idea. 

This led me to visit Bulgaria to know more of its history, and one of the highlights for me obviously was Kazanlak, a city founded in the 7th century BC by the Thracians with a unique tomb that was discovered by chance in 1944 while digging around the Roman Baths built on top of it. The word “kazan” literally means “still,” very much like the stills used till recently in the rose industry.

The Kazanlak Tomb, built during the 4th/3rd century BC, was smaller than I expected and counted three separate rooms: the entrance where the guests gathered for the funeral; a corridor with a pointed arched ceiling that reminded me of Agamemnon’s tomb although this one was painted; and finally the inner chamber where the walls and the circular ceiling were covered with frescos as well. The quality of these paintings clearly showed Greek influence yet executed conforming to Thracian traditions, how amazing! A novelty in those days was the perspective achieved by creating the light and shade effect. 

The Thracians could take up to six wives, and their favorite, generally the youngest one, was “allowed” to accompany her husband to the hereafter – a definite honor. Depends upon your opinion, of course. They considered that dying was a happy event because babies cried when they came into this world, meaning that the place they just left must simply be a better one. This is why the deceased is represented accompanied by his favorite wife and several highly prized horses. 

Evidently, there are many more tombs to visit, like the one of Buzovgrad mentioned above but also, I suppose, many others. The ones coming to my mind are the Ostrusha Tumulus near Shipka that counted six rooms. Also, the still sealed As mentioned before, a few remarkable tombs definitely deserve close attention. However, the Kazanlak Tomb is understandably closed to the public, who can visit a substitute replica next door.  from the 5th century BC. It contained a stunning massive gold vial in the shape of a gold mask like those discovered in Mycenae and Macedonia. However, this one was made from a much thicker sheet of gold. Finally, the Kosmatka Tumulus contained a splendid temple with an impressive façade where King Seuthes III, the founder of Seuthopolis, was buried in the early 3rd century BC. His magnificent head made of bronze shows a good-looking man, inspiring intelligence and nobility, indeed not the traits of a barbarian as one might think. 

In fact, I can’t wait till these unique tombs and tumuli are entirely made accessible to the public, another priority to put on my list!

Roxane’s tomb linked to the Lion of Amphipolis?

Much sooner than I expected, there is a sequel to my short article “Has the tomb of Roxane and young Alexander been located?” In spite of financial shortcuts, it seems archaeological work on this site has not been halted.

We all know that it was Cassander who, as king of Macedonia, sent  Queen Roxane and her son by Alexander the Great to Amphipolis to murder them both shortly afterwards. Under these circumstances, it sounds very strange to hear that this tomb was erected by Dinocrates, builder of Alexandria in Egypt, and the favorite architect of Alexander the Great. Alexander had a soft spot for Amphipolis, from where his fleet sailed east with him in 334 BC, and the city he intended to honor with a magnificent temple – a plan that never materialized due to the king’s untimely death. 

Since my story appeared in October 2012, about three-quarters of the total perimeter of the so-called Kasta Tumulus  has been exposed, making this tomb almost as large as the one in Vergina. The wall of the monument is built of limestone blocks covered with marble slabs from Thasos. It is clear that part of the stones have disappeared or have been removed for use elsewhere over time. It is surprising, however, that archaeologists have been able to establish that the blocks of marble used in the reconstruction of the nearby Lion of Amphipolis actually pertain to this very tomb. It is obvious to whoever has visited this lion monument that a great number of loose blocks and columns are lying around. One of the architects working on the present excavations, M Lefantzis, went so far as to assume that the tomb itself once was covered with soil and topped with a lion, the one that has been reassembled further uphill and known as the Lion of Amphipolis.

During the second century AD, the tomb was deliberately and thoroughly destroyed by the Romans, dragging most of the blocks, including the lion, into the Strymon River. Why this happened and why in such a violent way, I don’t know. At the time of the Balkan wars (1912-1913), Greek soldiers dug out a great deal of blocks from the Strymon riverbed, which led to reassembling the lion monument at the spot where we see it today. A great many pieces could not find a reasonable place in the reassembling works, and they were left behind at the foot of the monument.

Today’s archaeologists are once again collecting and categorizing the numerous marble blocks from the river bed as well as from around the Lion of Amphipolis, and because they have not found a penis, have come to the conclusion that we are looking at a lioness instead. While a lion statue may be used to honor a male hero or king, a lioness traditionally crowns a female tomb. Because of the large size of the Roxane tumulus, it is automatically linked with a female of royal blood, and who else would be important enough here in Amphipolis at the end of the fourth century BC but Roxane?

The inside of the tumulus still remains a secret, and it is quite an exciting thought that it might be the burial site of two persons so dear to Alexander, even if he has never seen his son and heir by Roxane.

More Royal Tombs found at Aegae

Talking about the Royal Tombs at Aegae (modern Vergina), the impressive Tomb of Philip II of Macedonia immediately comes to mind. In contrast, other smaller but not less important tombs are often dismissed.

Despite the financial problems in Greece, it is heartwarming to hear that excavations are still ongoing, bringing three new tombs to light, especially in Alexander’s homeland. The tombs are located near the Vergina Town Hall amidst a cluster of earlier discovered tombs closely related to Alexander’s ancestors, the Temenids, who fled Argos in the early 9th century BC to settle here.

Picture from Archaeology News Network 

The largest of these three tombs stands almost up to its original height and still shows traces of blue and red painted bands. Inside, the funerary bed and urn were placed at the southern end.

Yet the tomb on the north side, dating probably from mid 5th century BC, seems more impressive, although its walls only reach up to approximately 4.5 meters. The hypostyle hall measures 7 x 5 meters, with two Ionian columns on high square bases supporting the stone ceiling, while four framing semi-columns add an elegant touch. Each corner is filled with quarter-columns, and amazingly, a recuperated capital still has traces of white plaster under blue and red painted Ionian scrolls. The entrance is from the north in between two semi-columns and can be reached through a monumental stairway. Here too, the funerary bed and urn are located opposite the doorway. According to scholars, this tomb is very promising regarding the history of the origins of Macedonian tombs. Later, the tomb seems to have been used as a depository for several corpses of horses, dogs, and adults, as well as infants and toddlers, mingled with shards of pottery, tiles, and pieces of a marble funerary stele. These remains were apparently thrown in together during a single, probably tragic incident that seems to be connected with the destruction of Aegae by the Romans and the fall of the Macedonian Kingdom – as a consequence of Perseus’ defeat at Pydna in 168 BC.

All tombs were looted in antiquity, and it is thought that this looting might coincide with the destruction of the royal necropolis of Aegae in 276 BC. Yet some significant finds were made: a gold relief, probably a decorative element for a shield; a golden oak leaf, once part of a wreath and proof that the tomb belonged to a man; pieces of a cuirass in the form of scales; and several golden discs carrying the Macedonian star.

Interestingly, the archaeologists dug deeper underground to expose a fifteen-meter-long floor paved with pebbles. This floor, together with a few bits of white and colored plaster from the walls, seems to pertain to the original building, of which nothing else is left. They could date this early construction thanks to a coin of Perdiccas II (454-413 BC) discovered on the premises. Fragments of a larger sculpted floral motif with spiral shoots, buds, and acanthus leaves may indicate that these elements belonged to a funeral monument.

In the end, these new discoveries may lead to learning more about the fate of the Macedonian Kingdom from the time of King Amyntas (530-498 BC) and Alexander I (498-454 BC), ancestors to both Philip II and Alexander the Great, as those earlier times are still mostly shrouded in mystery. Exciting stuff!

[See: the Archaeology News Network for more information]

The Cyrus Cylinder and Ancient Persia: A New Beginning

Strangely enough, the Cyrus Cylinder never caught my attention, in spite of my repeated visits to the British Museum. It probably was one clay tablet among so many thousands, and even had I been aware of its existence, it is always hard to find that one item among so many in a large museum as this one.

But as the Cyrus Cylinder is being put in the floodlights, I realize what I have missed. Cyrus the Great was raw-model for Alexander the Great and that should be reason enough for me to dig in deeper. Although I was aware of Cyrus’ great heart and his desire to set all conquered peoples free, allowing them to return to their homes and homelands, it did not occur to me that this had been written down on a special cuneiform tablet, in this case in the shape of a cylinder. In today’s context of warring Middle-East and discontent youth worldwide, Cyrus’ message of peace, tolerance and multiculturalism sounds extremely modern. No wonder that the Cyrus Cylinder has been called the first bill of human rights!

This remarkable object is now travelling to several museums in the U.S., together with a number of artifacts adding to a better comprehension of the religions, the cultural and linguistic traditions of the empire founded by Cyrus, that of the Achaemenids (539-331 BC). Their rule ended with the arrival of Alexander the Great and his victory at the famous Battle of Gaugamela.

This travelling exhibition The Cyrus Cylinder and Ancient Persia: A New Beginning has been organized by the British Museum in partnership with the Iran Heritage Foundation and the Arthur M. Sacker Gallery, Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC, where it makes its first appearance. From May 3 through June 14, 2013, the collection will be on view at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, followed by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY from June 20 till August 4, 2013; the Asian Art Museum, San Francisco, CA, from August 9 till September 22, 2013; and the J. Paul Getty Museum at the Getty Villa in Malibu/Los Angeles, CA from October 2 till December 2, 2013.

This precious cylinder was buried as a foundation object to be tied with Cyrus’ conquest of Babylon and is written in Babylonian cuneiform. It claims his victory over the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus, adding that his newly conquered peoples will enjoy religious freedom. Most of the non-Babylonians had been moved from their home countries by force during Assyrians conquests, which included the destruction of Jerusalem. Cyrus now allows the Jews to recover their statues and gods that had been confiscated and taken out of their own temples; they also were allowed to return to Jerusalem in order to rebuild their temple. That gesture earned him the title “shepherd of God” and “Lord Anointed” (Messiah) in the Book of Isaiah. Although Cyrus’ ideology was known for centuries, it was only after the discovery of this cylinder in 1879 that his religious tolerance was proven. But even before this, generations of philosophers, kings and statesmen found their inspiration in his words, from ancient Greece to the Renaissance, to the Founding Fathers. It is not surprising that a copy of this cylinder is being kept at the United Nations Headquarters. The text shows a very modern way of ruling, uniting people from different backgrounds, ethnicities and religions. Thomas Jefferson had declared that the book Cyropaedia written by the Greek Xenophon (431-355 BC) should be mandatory reading for every statesman.

No wonder that Cyrus the Great served as an example to Alexander the Great, being very well aware of Xenophon’soeuvre as he must have read most if not all his books. Had Alexander lived long enough to consolidate his huge empire, we would have seen how he implemented the ideas of the Great King of Persia.

Today’s Iranians are proud to be descendants of Cyrus since he was the first Persian King who decided to break the tradition and allowed deported peoples to return to their homes. I find it hard to place this very concept in our modern world, either in the Middle-East or in Europe for that matter. This cylinder may incite us to deep reflection, I hope.

Zeugma, Border-town along the Euphrates River

Looking at the map of Syria, it is undeniable that most of its cities are concentrated in the west, along or close to the Mediterranean Sea. As soon as we turn to the east, the landscape becomes pretty desolate until we reach the Euphrates River, where a narrow stretch of land on either side is cultivated thanks to irrigation. The only road here follows the river's bends, dotted with occasional settlements frozen in a timeless time.

The Romans handily used the river as a natural frontier and built an entire string of forts in the style of the “limes” along the Rhine River, the Arabic Limes. They needed them as protection against possible invasions, mainly by the Sassanids from Persia. Looking at the map, we find a succession of towns and strongholds erected on the Euphrates River's western bank. Starting upstream, I read names like Zeugma, Hierapolis, Barablissos (on Lake Assad), Sura (where the Euphrates turns east), Rasaffa, Halabiye, Dura Europos, all the way down to Babylon in today’s Iraq. I think it is worthwhile to take a closer look at these names to see what they stand for and what heritage they have left for us.

Although there may have been some kind of fort at this location, it is generally agreed that Zeugma was founded by Seleucos I Nicator, one of Alexander’s generals, in 300 BC under the name of Seleucia-on-the-Euphrates. It was a strategic location on the trade route to the east connecting Antioch-on-the-Orontes with China. In 64 BC, this prosperous city was conquered by the Romans, who named it Zeugma, meaning as much as the “bridge of boats,” probably because of the pontoon bridge across the Euphrates River, which constituted, at that time, the border with the Persian Empire.

In 66 AD, the Romans had a particular legion (the Fourth Legion Scythica) stationed at Zeugma to protect their empire against invasions from the Parthians and Armenians. The soldiers must have spent their money lavishly if we consider the wealth in mosaics and frescoes that have been discovered. By the time the Romans annexed the Commagene Empire in 72 AD, the city had reached its highest prosperity, and the population must have risen to 80,000 people at least. But, like always, good times don’t last. In 256, Zeugma was invaded by the Sassanid King Shapur I with catastrophic consequences from which the city never recovered, especially since its decline was amplified by the violent earthquake that buried most of it. During the 5th and 6th centuries, it became part of the Byzantine Empire, and after ongoing Arab raids, it was abandoned again. We had to wait till the 10th and 12th centuries for a small Abbasid town to arise in Zeugma.

Zeugma reached headlines in 1990 when the Dam of Ataturk on the Euphrates was completed as part of the vast GAP project that covers both the Euphrates and the Tigris. This is the fourth largest dam in the world and belongs with 22 others to this project developed to irrigate a territory as large as Belgium. Thousands of people were expelled from their homes and lands as the remains of old Zeugma were flooded forever. Archaeologists worldwide scrambled to save whatever they could before the river and sediments obliterated the ruins. I consider such an act of destruction unforgivable. A proud city that withstood eons has to make way for money and politics, more so if you think that a dam has an average lifespan of 30 to 40 years, after which the irrigated lands become worthless because of the heavy alkali (salt) deposits in the soil. Besides, other countries located downstream of the Euphrates, like Syria, Iran, and Iraq, are claiming and fighting for their share of the water, with little result, I’m afraid.

The excavation work done in extremis at Zeugma has brought many gorgeous mosaics to light, which have been transferred to the nearby museum in Gaziantep. A few remains of plastered and painted walls have also been saved, together with some columns, statues, and all kinds of smaller household objects, coins, etc.

The mosaics, however, are of exceptional quality and very well preserved. They mainly pertain to one single villa with endless rooms paved with familiar scenes of gods and goddesses. For instance, Poseidon, Oceanus, and his sister/wife Tethys; a large floor mosaic of Oceanus and Tethys together; the classical birth of Aphrodite; Perseus who saved Andromeda from certain death; a lively scene of Daidalos and his son Ikarios; a picture of Demeter from a doorway; the river god Acheloos, King of Euphrates on one of the frames; a very colorful rendering of the wedding of Dionysus; a clearly Roman representation of Eros and Psyche; an absolutely fascinating gypsy girl, Gaia, with penetrating eyes; another Dionysus, this time with Bakkha under supervision of Niké; a devilish portrait of Silenos, companion of Dionysus; another image of Methiokos who was in love with Partenope; the god of the Euphrates in all his majesty; Achilles (Akhilleus) from a courtyard that once held a central fountain; a vivid portrait of Europa; Poseidon on his horse-drawn chariot with a bust of Oceanus and Tethys in the foreground; and many, many more. I had to scramble to see them all within the allotted time for the museum visit, and I didn’t want to miss the various wall frescos that were put back in their original place around the floor mosaics. An exquisite collection that is absolutely worth a visit by itself!

According to the latest news, there may still be some parts of Zeugma that remain visible to the anxious tourist, but I have yet to be there to see them for myself. I was lucky, after all, to have paid a visit to the magnificent collection at the Museum of Gaziantep!

Restoration of the Temple of Apollo in Side, Turkey

At last, the Turkish authorities have decided to work on the preservation of ancient Side! When I was there a few years ago (see: Side didn’t put up any resistance to Alexander) I found the antiquities rather neglected and in dear need to be freshened up to say the least.

Anatolia University is starting with the famous Temple of Apollo, the icon-image on every travel folder in the area. It is evident that the temple’s columns and decorations have suffered badly from the sea moisture and salty water. Their plan is to prevent (further?) corrosion of the columns. How exactly they are going to do this, I’m not told, but it has been 35 years since the last archaeologist worked here.

Beside this Temple of Apollo, they launched a landscaping project around other buildings like the Temple of Tyche, the Temple of Dionysus, the Temple of Athena (which remains I hardly could locate!), and a basilica (I wonder which one). From what I read in Today’s Zaman, they mainly aim to stopping the corrosion.