Alexander’s Legacy. Allard Pierson Museum in Amsterdam

The Allard Pierson Museum houses the Archaeological Museum of the University of Amsterdam. It is located in the heart of the city, within walking distance from the Hermitage Museum, which is presently showing a unique collection from St Petersburg about The Immortal Alexander the Great. Parallel with this venue, Allard Pierson has organized an exhibition called Alexander's Legacy – The Greeks in Egypt, meant to illustrate Alexander's influence in Egypt and in Alexandria in particular.

At the entrance, you are welcomed by Alexander in person, in the shape of a typical Roman bust, a copy from The Museo Capitolino in Rome, dated 1st century BC.

The first room immediately draws your attention towards a big colored map covering the territories conquered by Alexander, with underneath a row of people who profoundly influenced his life: Homer (Alexander slept with a copy of The Iliad under his pillow); Aristotle (the philosopher who taught the young prince so many valuable skills); Philip II (Alexander's father); Demosthenes (orator and politician who instigated the Athenians against Philip and against Alexander); and finally a head of a Persian soldier. A worthy welcoming committee, I dare say, even if the busts are merely copies. Another remarkable statue is a copy of the so-called Azara Hermes of Alexander from the Louvre in Paris, made by nobody less than the great Lysippos in 330 BC. Wonderful!

The museum's itinerary then leads through a narrow corridor where pictures illustrate the places and landscapes Alexander has crossed, subtitled with the distance separating one photograph from the next. It is an awe-inspiring way to present his 22,000-mile-long voyage.

In the next room, under the title From Prince to King, several small terracottas and bronze and silver statues give an image of the things surrounding Alexander. Or of the world, he must have known before campaigning in Asia. These are not significant works of art or delicate pieces, but they are very typical for the period and carefully chosen from the museum's own collection.

The next room is entirely arranged to reflect the period From King to God, featuring Alexander's arrival in Egypt, where he was received as the son of Ammon-Zeus. Striking examples are the coins showing Alexander with the rams' horns (the so-called Lysimachos coin) and the one representing Ptolemy I Soter, Alexander's general who ruled over Egypt after his death. The collection holds several terracotta statuettes, a clear testimony of how Greek and Egyptian elements were combined and melted together. Among the armory, you'll notice a striking model of a limestone mold for a leather shield cover made for Ptolemy's soldiers, holding typical Macedonian features: a central Medusa head surrounded by concentric circles with the Macedonian star. The idea is that the leather was hammered into the depth of this carved pattern before it was stretched out over the actual shield (330 BC, Egypt). There are also several molds to make iron and bronze helmets of different kinds and styles. I had no idea how these helmets or shields were ever made until now.

One of the showcases proudly exhibits the nearly two-inch high earthen head featured on the exhibition's billboard, strikingly resembling Alexander the Great. In fact, this is supposed to represent Ptolemy in the shape of Dionysos, a direct link to Alexander's godly forefather from the 3rd century BC.

This intimate exhibition ends with aspects of Alexander's heritage collected under the name From God to Legend. Alexander may have founded Alexandria, but it was Ptolemy who actually built the city. He and his descendants put much effort into integrating the Macedonians and Greeks into the local population, but the process was extremely slow. It was even hard to merge the Egyptian gods with known Greek counterparts. However, some progress was made with deities like Serapis and Harpokrates, as shown through several statuettes of both gods unearthed in Egypt. This is a decadent time where men-gods are generally pictured as rough, compact figures, miles away from the elegant Hellenistic style.

As always, there are some exceptions, of course. One such remarkable piece is, for instance, this double seal ring from the 1st century BC, where the Egyptian goddess Isis and the Greek Aphrodite are placed side by side. This indicates that the owner could use either one to append his signature, depending on the origin of his business partner. Quite an unusual idea!

Just as at the Hermitage Museum, this exhibition concludes with links to the stories that circulated about Alexander rather than historical facts. As early as the 3rd century BC, the first version of the Alexander Romance was born. Over the centuries, especially in the Middle Ages, the story became more fiction than reality. The Koran, but also Persian and Indian literature, mentions Alexander, either as a hero or as a merciless conqueror, depending on the authors' fancy or prejudice.

It is a fact that Alexander the Great keeps triggering everybody's imagination, but whatever we may think, he is and will always remain the Immortal Alexander.

Those visitors who want to learn more about Greek and Roman antiquity can take the opportunity to visit Allard Pierson's own collection upstairs. They will find a very representative number of objects and statues, clearly set in their time frame with decent explanation and careful presentation - definitely worth your time.

[More pictures of this exhibition are available under Alexander's Legacy]

Babylon, the ultimate goal!

For those who followed the adventurous trip of Theodore May in the Footsteps of Alexander the Great this is no news. For those who didn't, be aware that he made it to Babylon against all odds!

His full story will follow soon (I suppose Christmas is his priority right now). So keep checking his site Backpacking to Babylon and don't forget to congratulate him with this exceptional archievement.

A view of the Battlefield of Gaugamela!

A view of the Battlefield of Gaugamela at last!

Just have a look at this video of Gaugamela. It is only one of the many scenes from Oliver Stones' movie on Alexander the Great, but what a movie and most of all: what a scene! It is absolutely breathtaking for you are right in the middle of the battle.

It's exactly how I always saw it in my dreams...

Alexander coins found in Syria

Every new discovery of an Alexander item is great news as far as I’m concerned. This time the news comes from Syria and more precisely from Najm Castle in the Aleppo area, which I visited recently, where a hoard of coins has been unearthed. Why don’t I find such hidden treasures….!

Well, to start with I am not a local, like this Syrian who did some construction works on his land and discovered a bronze box filled with no less than 250 coins! He was so honest to deliver them to the competent local authorities who quickly could sift through them. They were all from Hellenistic times and all made of silver, i.e. 137 tetra drachmae (four drachmae) and 115 drachmae.

The tetradrachmae all clearly show Alexander the Great on one side, while the obverse depicts Zeus sitting on a throne holding an eagle on his arm. As can be expected, most of these coins carry Alexander’s name but they come in two different ways: 34 coins read King Alexander and 81 just show Alexander. Strangely enough, the remaining 22 coins bear the name of King Philip!

On the single drachmae coins however, one hundred of them show the name of Alexander while the remaining fifteen coins are inscribed with the name of Philip.

Why the name of King Philip, Alexander’s father is showing on Hellenistic coins seems kind of odd as he never got as far as Syria and the Hellenistic period started only after Alexander’s death many years later. This article from Global Arab Network (March 2010) does not offer any further explanation, nor does it mention a timeframe when these coins were minted. That is highly unfortunate, I would say.

Isn’t this great news? There certainly are not too many Alexander coins around and if the Syrians banalise this find and think it is not worth more press space, they are certainly welcome to distribute them among the Alexander fans of this world. Personally, I would even travel all the way to Syria just to collect one of these Alexander coins. Who else?

Alexander the Great. Selections ... by James Romm

Alexander the Great. Selections ... by James Romm. ISBN-0-877220-728-5

The full title of this book actually reads “Alexander the Great. Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch and Quintus Curtius. Edited, with Introduction and Notes, by James Romm. Translated by Pamela Mensch and James Romm".

Quite a mouthful indeed. The reason I purchased this book was to read, at least parts, of the original texts which every single author seems to refer to, i.e. the writers from antiquity. Since I don’t know Greek or Latin, I have to use whatever translation that is available. This means that I have to trust today’s authors to present a thorough and/or complete text for I have no way to control this by any means.

James Romm has put together the life-story of Alexander the Great, starting in Macedonia with his father Philip, and ending with his own death in 323 BC. He is using alternatively whatever ancient writer he feels fit, tying his selection of ancient writers together with an occasional explanatory paragraph.

Personally I find this book rather disappointing for it does not add any new vision or argument to the battles and conquests of Alexander the Great or to the exceptional personality he was. It is however easy reading, yet just too superficial to my taste.

The Immortal Alexander the Great. The Hermitage Museum in Amsterdam.

Just brace yourself, for the treasures from this exhibition will leave an everlasting impression on the visitor’s poor soul! In a way, the many artifacts are meant to convince the public that Alexander is indeed “immortal” if ever such a need existed. In my eyes and in the eyes of his many admirers over the centuries, this statement is redundant. Throughout history, the adulation of Alexander has regularly made the headlines. 

We all know how the Roman Emperors admired him, starting with Caesar, who allegedly was deeply moved when he visited Alexander’s Tomb in Alexandria. But even less valorous Emperors like Caligula and Caracalla liked to dress up like him, posing with his shield and helmet. During the Middle Ages, we saw the evolution of the Alexander Romance, a collection of the most fantastic stories based on actual facts. The Persians revived him as Iskander the Two-Horned with colorful miniatures in their delicate manuscripts. Closer to home, we find rulers like Catherine the Great of Russia and Louis XIV of France, who envied his name and achievements, and we owe them a true Alexander cult that erupted all over Europe.

In today’s world, we take a more analytical point of view when we look at Alexander’s life and heritage, where our critical eye leaves nearly no room for imagination or even appreciation. However, the outcome remains unchanged, for Alexander left an everlasting imprint on the lands and the peoples he conquered. He cannot have done this on purpose, for how could he have foreseen how deeply Hellenism would revolutionize the world then and now? Traces of his Hellenism may not be so evident, but they are still very much present in our daily lives. Look closer at our churches, cathedrals, villas, museums, palaces, etc. Often, their facades are embellished with Greek columns and pediments enhanced with Greek figures in their decorations. How many sculptors, jewelers, and potters from Europe to China to America have copied Hellenistic statues, jewels, and vases? How deeply have these influences touched our daily lives, time and again?

Useless to mention that my expectations are running high when I rush through the entrance gate of the Hermitage Museum as the very first visitor of the day. The Museum is in an old 17th-century building with a thoroughly modernized interior. The layout is well thought out with the latest technologies, and the friendly personnel are a pleasant bonus.

The exhibition starts on the first floor with The Myth of Alexander the Great, illustrated by 17th-century paintings of Alexander. I could have done without them, for the Alexander who is portrayed here gives, in my eyes, an exaggerated and deformed image. We find Pietro Antonio Rotari ‘s work of Alexander and Roxane; Sebastiano Ricci depicting Alexander’s court-painter Apelles while he is painting Campaspe; and Charles Le Brun, an excellent artist, no doubt, who knew how to please Louis XIV. But none of this meets my personal vision of Alexander, although the paintings themselves are excellent. On the opposite wall, we can admire panels by Antoine Marie Melotte (from nearby Liège in Belgium), who has translated Le Brun’s painting into wood carvings, and at the far end of this room, a magnificent tapestry made in Brussels (1661-1695) representing Alexander with the Family of King Darius. But my heart skips a few beats when I reach the Hellenistic and Roman statues in the second half of this room.

This section is about Alexander’s Reality. It starts with the world in which Alexander grew up in Macedonia, amidst his godly forefathers and mythical heroes. The eye-catchers are two huge statues, evidently Roman copies of Greek originals, one representing Heracles with the apples (2nd century) and the other Dionysus/Bacchus (2nd century, after an original from the 4th-3rd century BC). I prefer the smaller Herakles killing a Nemean lion (2nd-3rd century AD) in full action with tense muscles; very realistic. Next to it stands a relatively complete marble statue of young Eros ready to shoot his arrow from his drawn bow. This is a Roman copy, just like the identical statue I know from the Louvre in Paris. Nice to meet his brother here! At the far end, I met up with two names familiar to Alexander, Aeschines depicted on a marble medallion from 150 AD, and the head of Demosthenes, a Roman copy of 100-125 AD from a Greek original by Polyeuktes.

The showcases are filled with weapons and armament, a 16th-century steel breastplate covered with bone scales and lion masks, a pattern that goes back to antiquity. In contrast, there is a substantial Greek breastplate with a frightening-looking Medusa in its center, dating back to the 5th-4th century BC and found in the northern area of the Black Sea – something Alexander must have known.

The set would not be complete without a collection of Greek vases, mainly with a black background like the hydria from about 500 BC showing Achilles and Polyxena, or the volute-krater carrying a picture of offerings, dating from 340-330 BC, found in Apulia (Southern Italy). The heroic figure of Achilles occupies a central place in Alexander’s life and in the decoration of the various vases, so again on another black-figured hydria from Attica (510 BC), where Achilles is bending over the body of Hector – a very famous scene.

The central part of this section covers Alexander’s Journey, a word that apparently prevails over the appellation “conquests.” Visitors can follow the road of Alexander's entire expedition on the computer with interactive maps. Still, the images move too fast if you ask me, and I wonder if anyone who looks at Alexander’s route for the first time can follow his progress and realize his impact. I have my doubts.

Luckily, the exhibition continues chronologically, starting with Alexander’s crossing into Asia (today’s Turkey), his progress through Syria to Egypt, and from there to Persia and Babylonia, to reach Bactria (the northeastern part of today’s Afghanistan), and finally even India. Not only do we see what Alexander must have seen, but more so the imprints of what he left behind, i.e., the Greek influence on local art and the local way of life. It goes without saying that I have never seen most of these artifacts, not even in pictures, for they never or seldom leave the Hermitage in St Petersburg. I even wonder whether the tourists in St Petersburg will see all of this, for the Hermitage Palace is far too big and the visits, from what I have heard, are far too short.

Anyway, there are several striking pieces I want to highlight here. First, there is a small marble head of Alexander from the 1st century, evidently a Roman copy of a Greek original (most certainly by Lysippos). Although somewhat damaged, it is still very similar. Then, a portrait study of one of the Ptolemies from Egypt (3rd-1st century BC), illustrating the impact of Alexander’s general Ptolemy and his offspring on Egypt. There is also an impressive collection of cameos made of sardonyx. I particularly remember the one portraying Alexander hunting boar from the 1st century AD (from Italy), the one of Alexander-Helios, son of Cleopatra VII and Marc Anthony, depicted as Horus-Harpocrates from the 1st century BC (from Egypt); the twin portraits of Ptolemy II Philadelphos and Arsinoe II from the 3rd century BC, i.e., the so-called Gonzaga cameo (from Alexandria); the Triumph of Dionysos from the 1st century BC (also from Alexandria) and an excellent Zeus with brown curly hair from the 3rd century BC (again from Alexandria). Pictures of these precious pieces can be found under the Dutch tab Beeldmateriaal van de Hermitage (not available in English, unfortunately).

More thrilling items are luring from all sides! In the Egyptian showcase, and as a matter of course, I come across Cleopatra VII of Egypt, a delicate basalt statue from 51-30 BC with clear Hellenistic elements. This is the Cleopatra we all know as Queen of Egypt, although she unmistakably has Macedonian blood from the first Ptolemy running through her veins. New to me is to hear that besides Caesarion, her son with Caesar, she had three more children, this time with Marc Anthony: a son, Alexander-Helios (see above), and twins, a girl and a boy. After Cleopatra’s death, the children were raised by the sister of Octavian, the imperial victor, after which they entirely disappeared from history. I was unaware of this part of her life; I learned something new today. I’m also quite surprised by the bronze head of a “Hellenistic ruler with helmet” that looks Egyptian but is not. It probably originates from the Eastern Mediterranean and should belong to the 2nd-1st century BC. 

Then unexpectedly, I am walking among life-size heads, Roman copies, of course, like the marble bust of Achilles that somehow reminds me of Alexander and is copied from an original from 170-160 BC, and the head of Meleagros, also from a Greek original from 350-340 BC. Striking and obviously, Hellenistic is the marble head of Mithridates VI Eupator from Pergamon, dated 90-80 BC. The relief fragment from Iran also demands some attention: it represents a royal guard from about 500 BC belonging either to Xerxes or Darius. Lovely to see this at eye level.

Scattered among these statues and statuettes, I’m enchanted to find a collection of coins from all corners of Alexander’s Empire. First, there are coins of Alexander himself with ram’s horns, lion head, or elephant skin, and of Alexander’s successors in similar attire. The gold stater with Alexander from Macedonia is an inevitable eye-catcher, and the Bactrian coin where the ruler wears a kind of sun helmet looks very familiar too. Initially, only gods and goddesses were depicted on these coins, and I noticed a remarkable silver one with the profile of Zeus, whose hair is made of oak leaves. Take a good, close look, for this is really something unique.

Nike, the goddess of Victory, was also very popular, not only on coins (there is a wonderful golden one on display here) but also in jewelry like the golden-winged earrings from the mid-4th century BC, in a typical Greek representation, which is believed to be a reduced copy from a monumental statue. Most charming are the earrings set with a dove pendant sitting on a small swing that must go back and forth with each move of the wearer’s head. The dove is dressed in colored glass and hessonite (cinnamon-colored quartz). This jewel was made in Alexandria in the 2nd century BC. 

Athena is also present, of course, and the seal ring of Athena Nikeforos really deserves some attention. This ring is pure Greek from the 4th century BC and was found in the Northern Black Sea region. Such craftsmanship in those days! While talking about gold, I’d like to mention a few rare items. There is, for instance, a remarkably well-preserved golden bowl with handles in the shape of animals from Persia dating from the 5th-4th century BC; a golden quiver (gorytos) with action scenes from the life of Achilles from the Northern Black Sea area dated 350-325 BC; and finally the many golden Greek olive crowns from the same region, mid-4th century BC – there must have been lots of them for they keep turning up so often in so many different sites. And finally, a gorgeous golden choker from East Iran, dated 5^th-3^rd century BC.

Finally, there are miscellaneous objects, among which are striking bronze and silver bowls and beakers. I admire an excellent silver drinking cup (kylix) with Helios's figure in his carriage at the bottom and a bronze Hellenistic head used as a decorative element on a chariot - both from the 3^rd century BC. Here, I come face to face with the silver-gilded Phaleras, larger than I imagined them, showing scenes of fighting elephants in a straightforward mixture of Greek and Asiatic elements, dated 3^rd-2^nd century BC, and found in East Iran. All in all, too much to make a complete list, but they deserve our attention. I can’t get enough of it, of course!

The exhibition now continues on the second floor. This part is only about Alexander’s Legacy, but I have to admit I expected more convincing material. A few papyri were written in Greek to prove that this language was still used after the Arabs conquered the Middle East. From here, it is only a short step to the Middle-Age concoction of the Alexander Romance and the miniature illustrations of Iskander in the Persian literature of the 15th and 16th centuries. I’m not too impressed with these exhibits, for they are far from Alexander's “Greek” image.

Last but not least, we reach the pomp and circumstance of the Russian Court, which I think is exaggerated like the Alexander statue cut at the end of the 18th century from walrus bones – a meager figure on horseback. A more rewarding result has been achieved with the vast bronze clock from the end of the 19th century, where Alexander is (very idealistically) depicted while reading. The story goes that Alexander wanted to avoid falling asleep at any cost, so he held an iron ball in one hand. If his attention lapsed or he was about to fall asleep, the ball would slip from his hand and fall into the bowl underneath with a loud rattle. He would be sure to resume his reading after that. A charming tale, but we are looking at an elegant, attractive, and handsome Alexander. Pictures and photographs show only his face, which is a pity, for I’m taken by his entire posture, delicate sandals, and elegant chair with his weapons leaning against it – not to mention the fine relief that runs all around the base of the clock.

To prove that Alexander the Great is still a topical figure in our times, there is a reference to the movie Oliver Stone made in 2004. And I say “luckily” because the film has been rejected by many audiences and historians. These critics, in my mind, do him wrong and are definitely without foundation. The old movie with Richard Burton never got such criticism, far from it, and that movie is absolutely horrible to watch.

Well, that’s it. In the wide corridor on the way downstairs, you can stop at four monumental pictures by Erwin Olaf, who made a photographic interpretation of Alexander. This man, at least, understood what was expected of him when he was asked to combine objects from this exhibition with life figures. This is great art, and it pays off to take a moment to watch these superb creations. For your information, one of his photos is shown on the billboards for this exhibition. Had he lived, Alexander would undoubtedly have been flattered!

In short, this exhibition does credit to its name: The Immortal Alexander the Great. Alexander has defied the centuries, and 2,300 years after his death, he still lives on in our imagination. If that does not mean being “immortal,” what does?

The Genius of Alexander the Great by NGL Hammond

I finished reading The Genius of Alexander by N.G.L. Hammond (ISBN 0807823503) and ended up with mixed feelings. To me, Alexander the Great simply is a genius, and I was curious to hear what Hammond's arguments would be. He seems to be an authority on Macedonian history, but I found him rather disappointing since he did little to nothing to explain where he saw Alexander's genius. Yet, who am I to question him? There are, however, several statements where I put a question mark as I don't know what to think. Is there someone out there who can help me?

1. After settling the internal conflicts of Greece after Philip's death, Alexander conducted sacrifices to Zeus and organized a lavish feast, constructing a massive tent with one hundred couches for his friends and commanders. Hammond says this was held at Aegae, while I am sure it was at Dion, as I have read the billboard out there myself. Unless there were two celebrations?

2. Hammond writes about Alexander, "He must have been much influenced by his paternal grandmother Eurydice, who as Queen Mother was held in the highest esteem." This is new to me. Where could this information come from?

3. He also claims that Alexander called himself Lord of Asia as soon as he crossed the Hellespont! In my mind, that happened only after Gaugamela. I doubt that Alexander himself would have used this title, for why else would he have gone after Darius, who was still at large? That doesn't make sense, does it?

4. A last remark about food transportation happening in the chapter where Alexander is ready to cross the Hindu Kush. The army had "to purchase or requisition a huge stock of basic supplies, which were transported on four-wheeled wagons, drawn by horses, mules or oxen." He confirms that the Macedonians and the Thracians had a long history of road building and that the Persian Empire had its own roads (of course), but he makes it appear as if Alexander paved the world where there were no roads! It was Philip who dismissed all carts from the army to start with, and Alexander followed in his footsteps, I'm sure. That Alexander took advantage of existing Persian roads where available sounds logical. Still, I would not write that he used four-wheeled wagons as a standard means of transportation, and definitely not when he was on his way to cross the Hindu Kush.

This book leaves me with lots of questions. However, the most interesting part is at the end when Hammond makes up the balance with the worldwide consequences of Alexander's conquests. But then Arrian has done this before him; Hammond only puts it in a 21st-century context.

More in the Footsteps of Alexander the Great!

If Alexander wanted indeed to be remembered after his death, his wish definitely has been fulfilled but never in his wildest dreams, I am certain, would he have expected his memory to cover a span of 2,300 years!

When Peter Sommer walked in Alexander’s footsteps in 1994 the entire length of today’s Turkey, i.e. from the crossing of the Hellespont (Dardanelles) all the way to the site of the Issus Battlefield near the Syrian border, I thought we had seen the last of his kind.

After him came, nearly as a matter of course, Michael Wood, who in 1997 went the whole way, from Alexander’s birthplace in Pella, Greece, to the most eastern limit of his empire in India. But Michael Wood travelled with the entire BBC organization at his side and he did not literally walk in Alexander’s footsteps. He didn’t go on foot as Peter Sommer did in Turkey, walking some 2,000 miles  - an awing and most rewarding experience, I’m sure.

To my greatest surprise, I now discover that there is another brave young man who got inspired by Alexander the Great and is presently walking in his footsteps. His name is Theodore May, journalist and reporter for the Middle-East in the past four years or so, a native New-Yorker with a degree in history.

He picked up Alexander’s route mid-April of this year, where Peter left of, on the banks of the Pinarus River, the place of the first confrontation between Alexander and the Persian King Darius in 333 BC took place. Theodore's final destination is Babylon and he hopes to reach it in eight months, after a journey of 2,000 miles also. This is quite an undertaking for the Middle-Eastern countries he is crossing are not the most evident ones. Luckily for us at home, he keeps us posted on his blog as he has the luxury of traveling with today’s technology of GPS and computer – something Peter Sommer only 16 years ago had to do without. I can’t help wondering what Alexander the Great would have thought about our instant means of communication …

I truly believe we should support Theodore as much as we can. Do visit his site Backpacking to Babylon as often as you can and send him some encouragement and marks of appreciation. We would do no less for Alexander, would we?

Alexander the Great. Man of Action/Man of Spirit by Pierre Briant

Alexander the Great. Man of Action/Man of Spirit (ISBN 0-8109-2833-7) is a tiny book but definitely worth its value. Pierre Briant manages to give the reader a brief but captivating overview of Alexander’s life and conquests. The book is richly illustrated with colored photographs of good quality, each carrying its own comment, meaning that even the superficial reader will pick up plenty of information about the thundering exploits of Alexander the Great without having to strain himself. There are also a couple of colored maps to clarify the routes which Alexander and his army followed, a non-negligible asset in my eyes.

Most unexpected, however, is the figure material that Briant manages to integrate without being boring or overwhelming. The number of troops and cavalry that are involved on both sides in the skirmishes and battlefields all along the way east, and the extensive booty in gold, silver, jewelry, etc. captured at the Royal Palaces in Persia (Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, Pasargadae and Ecbatana). He even manages to squeeze in the names of the writers from antiquity that he used as his sources.

Alexander’s exploits are put down on nice glossy paper whereas the second half of the book is printed on normal white paper. This second half contains excerpts from Alexander’s historians, Arrian, Diodorus and Plutarch to name just a few; a couple of pages about Alexander’s successors quoting Justin, Diodorus, Curtius, Aelian and Plutarch; and finally a chapter about Alexander’s legend. The book would, of course, not be complete without an analysis and maps of the Battle of Gaugamela and a glance at the grave site at Vergina where it is generally accepted that Alexander’s father, King Philip, has been buried. A helpful Chronology, Further Reading and a List of Illustrations conclude this passionate account of Alexander’s conquests.

In short, whether you are a seasoned reader or a timid novice on the subject of Alexander the Great, there is enough material in this book to entice everyone.

Alexander’s treasure located at Kyinda / Cyinda?

High atop the Karasis, a mountain in southern Turkey's heart of the Taurus Mountain Range, rises a mysterious stronghold discovered in recent years. Speculations run high whether or not this could be the legendary fortress of Kyinda, where the war booty of Alexander the Great was kept. The location in Cilicia is mentioned by Strabo in his Geography (Book 14-5.10): "Above Anchiale lies Cyinda, a fortress, which at one time was used as a treasury by the Macedonians." Diodorus (Book 18-62.2 and 19-56.5) refers to Cyinda while talking about Eumenes and Antigonus Monophthalmus retrieving money from its treasury during the Diadochi Wars. Still, so far, the location has not been found. (After Eumenes had exploited its resources in 318 BC, some 10,000 talents remained for Antigonus in late 316 BC. Later, Antigonus paid his army for three months out of the money he took from Cyinda for the campaign of Ipsus – see Bosworth, The Legacy of Alexander.

Alexander was the wealthiest man on earth when he died in Babylon in 323 BC. During his campaigns, he had amassed colossal booty, including the treasuries of the Persian Kings in their Royal Palaces of Ecbatana, Persepolis, Susa, and Pasargadae. All this wealth was in the hands of Alexander and, at his death, became a severe subject of dispute and fight among his generals until forty years later, his Empire was finally divided between Seleucos, Ptolemy, Lysimachos, and Cassander. We know about the occupied territories, the underlying killings, and the personal greed of Alexander's successors (the Diadochi), but what happened to his treasures?

Pierre Briant is a marvel in figures, facts, and statistics (see: Alexander the Great. Man of Action/Man of Spirit), and I gladly will quote him while adding up the figure material.

Alexander's first substantial booty was taken in Damascus after the Battle of Issus. Briant accounts for it as follows: "silver earmarked for enormous payments to the army, vestments of a host of noblemen and women, gold place settings, golden horse-bits, tents decorated with royal splendor, and chariots abandoned by their owners and overflowing with unheard-of wealth." At that time, Alexander needed the money badly to pay his army for future campaigns, as he had left Macedonia in debt and with borrowed money, but it gave him a first glimpse of the wealth that could be his.

When Darius fled the Battlefield of Gaugamela, he left Alexander "a treasure worth roughly 4,000 talents (between 75 and 100 tons of silver), his bow, his arrows and his chariot". Yet Alexander was just starting his march through the Persian Empire, taking possession of one Royal City after the other, and evidently, there was more to come.

The first stop was at Susa, "which boasted one of the Empire's largest treasure stores, where the Great Kings stocked their precious metals. The ancient authors estimated its value at between 40,000 and 50,000 talents –from 1,000 to 1,250 tons of gold- plus 9,000 talents (225 tons) of the gold coins known as darics." By the way, the value of the textiles alone was worth more than 5,000 talents and included more than 100 tons of purple cloth colored with a mixture of dye from the Gulf of Spetses and honey to keep the color fresh. Do we have any idea what this looked like, I wonder?

At this stage, Alexander possessed more than substantial reserves of precious metal, and his financial worries were history. Previously, Pelusium in Egypt had contributed to the royal treasury with 800 talents (20 tons of silver and gold), Babylon with 18,000 talents (4,500 tons of silver and gold), and now he was heading for the grand palace of Persepolis, where the unbelievable sum of 120,000 talents or 3,000 tons of gold awaited him! According to Plutarch, 10,000 spans of mules and 5,000 camels were needed to transfer this enormous load to Susa. The wealth and figures are beyond comprehension, even in antiquity, as according to the standards of the 5th century BC, the booty at Persepolis alone was about 300 times the equivalent of the annual national income of Athens.

After Persepolis, Alexander laid siege to nearby Pasargadae, the former capital of Persia, where another 6,000 talents were added to his financial reserves. Meanwhile, Darius was still on the run ahead of him, supported by a small but faithful band of soldiers, using 7,000 or 8,000 gold talents (175 or 200 tons) from the treasury of Ecbatana before leaving the remaining sum to Alexander. The size of this booty is not mentioned by the ancient writers, but we do know that Alexander left 6,000 Macedonian soldiers in Ecbatana to guard it. However, he could have used every single man for his upcoming campaigns further East. I wonder how many men were ever in charge of guarding Fort Knox.

Anyway, a simple sum of all the figures above gives us the most impressive amount of gold and silver alone, and we only know the main provenances of the money.

     Alexander's booty                                      in talents

     Pelusium                                                           800

     Babylon                                                        18.000

     Gaugamela                                                     4.000

     Susa                                                              50.000

     Susa, golden Darics                                       9.000

     Persepolis                                                   120.000

     Persepolis, Darius personal                           8.000

     Pasargadae                                                     6.000

     Total                                                            215.800

This list does not include the Indian campaigns, which must have yielded vast amounts of precious stones, ivory, and textiles. We get a subtle hint when we read Arrian's account of the gifts from Taxiles when Alexander reaches the Indus: "200 talents of silver, 3,000 oxen and over 10,000 sheep for sacrificial purposes, and some thirty elephants." These were only gifts, meaning Taxiles could easily spare them! There was gold and silver from minor cities and towns, livestock, horses, cattle, slaves, jewelry, etc. After campaigning around the Aornos fortress, for instance, Arrian casually tells us, "the Macedonians took possession of more than 230,000 oxen, of which Alexander chose the finest specimens since they seemed to him of remarkable beauty and stature and he wished to send them back to Macedonia to work the land." A casual remark, it seems, but just try to picture 230,000 pieces of cattle together in a field!

On the other hand, it is evident that Alexander was confronted with huge expenses on logistics; moving and feeding an army of tens of thousands was not a small matter. We know he loved rewarding his friends and granting bonuses to his most meritorious and valorous soldiers. The army ended up spending more money than they ever thought they would possess, and although it helped to boost the world economy of those days, the men got used to living above their means. We'll remember that at the splendid Susa wedding of 324 BC, Alexander had to step in and with a gesture that once more shows his magnanimity, he acquitted their debts, paying the incredible amount of 20,000 talents from his own pocket (this is more than what the treasury of Babylon had yielded!). Another chunk was taken by Harpalos, who, unfit for military service, had been appointed by Alexander as Imperial Treasurer. He led a life of crime and debauchery in Babylon. So when he learned that Alexander was heading back for Babylon in 324 BC, Harpalos cowardly fled to Athens, taking "considerable sums" of the king's money with him.

But all this was minor compared to the enormous wealth left after Alexander's death, which his successors undoubtedly divided among themselves. We know, for instance, that Lysimachos' money was safely kept on the Acropolis of Pergamon - a mere 9,000 talents in silver and gold, roughly worth several billion in today's value. A similar or higher amount must have been the share of Ptolemy, Seleucos, and Cassander. Where can one find a safe and trustworthy place to keep such enormous amounts of money, jewelry, and precious stones?

This brings us back to Strabo, who names the stronghold of Kyinda (or Cyinda), which was never found until now. In recent years, a strange-looking ruin was spotted on a nearly 2,000-meter-high mountain top in the remoteness of the rough Taurus Mountains. Could this be Seleucos' secret hiding place? After all, his capital city of Antiochia, modern Antakya, lies only 150 km further south and certainly was not defendable enough to keep the treasury safe.

When Mustapha Sayar, a Turkish archaeologist, and his friend and colleague Adolf Hoffmann, Manager from the German Archaeological Institute in Istanbul, set out by helicopter in search of what could be Kyinda, they could not believe their eyes. A closer look at the walls perched high on the needle rocks in the Cilician landscape reveals ruins of massive straight walls; slowly, their trained eye discovers building after building, thick outer walls and watchtowers, and even a large hall right above the precipice. A secret building complex, hidden from the human eye for eons, as even the local farmers are not aware of anything up there. Soon, an expedition is put together. An expedition it is, for there are no roads on this steep slope, and the climb upwards is demanding and strenuous. Archaeologists, as well as the local manpower, are full of excitement and anticipation. Who were the builders of this fortification on the Karasis? When was it built? And most of all, for what purpose?

Strategically, this fortress is ideally situated. The ruins emerge out of nowhere, and the high, straight walls wrap around the entire mountaintop. It is almost a miracle that the spot has never been discovered before.

Both archaeologists soon agree that this must be a fortress from the days of the Diadochi, Alexander's successors. Wrestling through the thick undergrowth, they marvel at the perfectly cut stone blocks and their precise fitting. The architects from antiquity must have been near geniuses. Pretty soon, they discover a relief of an elephant above one of the doorways, the emblem used by Seleucos and his successors - a solid confirmation that this fortification matches the period they suspected. The elephant was the wonder weapon of the ancients. We all remember Alexander's victory over Porus and his war elephants in 326 BC. Since then, the elephant has been considered a symbol of power, and it was used by Seleucos on the reverse of the coins he minted.

At the bottom of the imposing walls, the archaeologists find a hidden entrance leading through a vaulted tunnel with smooth, close-fitting stone walls. Niches covered with soot lead us to believe that oil lamps once lit the passageway, and high air shafts guaranteed good air circulation. Is this tunnel leading them to the hidden treasure? But then suddenly, the corridor ends, and all that is left to see is a pool of clear water, a treasure of another kind, for, without water, life up here would not have been possible.

Back on the mountaintop, Hoffmann's men figured out that the large hall right above one of the steep faces of the Karasis must have served as a storage area, measuring 60 x 12 meters. By deduction, they estimate that approximately 700 tons of wheat could be stored there, a sound supposition as the room shows a good ventilation system. Thanks to such storage space, the fort could be manned and defended for years in a row. Next to it is a small vaulted room, built in the same fashion as the underground passage to the water spring. This may be where the treasure was kept. Yet not a single coin, no jewelry, and indeed no treasure has been found here either, although the historian Diodorus tells us that the Kyinda treasure amounted to at least 10,000 talents, i.e., 200 tons of pure silver.

The place was practically impregnable, so what happened? Too many questions still need to be answered, despite all the high-tech equipment used to measure the place's layout. It is generally agreed that the Celts swept down to cities like Delphi, Ephesus, and Pergamon to loot the precious gifts stored in their temples. The same may have happened at Kyinda.

Finally, Mustapha Sayar and Adolf Hoffmann end up with an excellent computer reconstruction of what they believe to be the legendary Kyinda, but no trace of a treasure. So the place still remains shrouded in mystery.

I'm curious to hear what happened since this program aired on German television ZDF in March 2006. So far, all is quiet, and even on the internet, very little information is available about Kyinda (or Cyinda). It feels like hunting for the Golden Fleece, but who knows what secrets are buried somewhere? We may need Schliemann's luck to find the treasure of Alexander the Great. Let's keep our eyes peeled!

[Pictures of Kyinda come from the Terra-X program on German TV]