Hoard of Roman coins found in Pantelleria

The small island of Pantelleria lies about one hundred kilometers southwest of Sicily, off the Tunisian coast, which is visible on a clear day. 

During recent excavations, archaeologists discovered 27 silver coins that had been deliberately hidden. They surfaced after severe rains had flooded the area. These silver denarii were minted between 94 and 74 BC. In those days, the island belonged to the Roman Republic and served as an important trading center in the Mediterranean. 

[Picture from All that's Interesting]

It is noteworthy that in the 1st century BC, the eastern Mediterranean, in particular, was plagued by repeated attacks from pirates. They even dared to kidnap young Julius Caesar in 78 BC and hold him for ransom. The story goes on to say that Caesar felt insulted because the pirates demanded only 20 talents for his liberation. He personally insisted they should raise the amount to 50 talents! Caesar was released after 38 days. The pirates swarmed as locusts over the towns and farms, plundering and burning them on the go. In 42 BC, in a large-scale operation, Pompey finally managed to abolish piracy. 

During these uncertain times, people buried their valuables and money, hoping to retrieve their possessions after the pirates left. It was not to be in the present case; the treasures were recovered only two thousand years later. 

A trove of over 100 coins was found during previous excavations, as well as marble busts of Caesar, Agrippina, and Emperor Titus.

Reading and decoding inscriptions

Today’s visitors will inevitably come across many inscriptions when visiting ancient sites or museums. Reading Greek or Latin is not for everybody, and understanding the meaning of the text and context is reserved only for the happy few. The stone or marble support has more often than not suffered from wear and tear, leaving the untrained eye to merely guess its value. 

We are lucky to find an explanation next to the inscription, rarely a full translation, as those are reserved for scholars. Well, the text may be boring, but it also may contain some exciting twists and turns. Yet, who wants to know? 

In antiquity, people would read the latest laws and decrees, regulations and agreements, peace treaties, manumission of slaves, grave markers, boundary stones, milestones, etc., as they walked through public spaces. Some of these texts are still in situ, particularly those engraved on the walls of still-standing monuments. The majority, however, has found a place in the museum for safekeeping and is often out of sight. 

The most familiar examples of inscriptions are those chiseled on grave steles, sarcophagi, and tombs. They also appear on the pedestals of statues lining the streets like Phaselis’ Harbor Street or Olympia’s road to the Stadium. Others serve to identify the deities, kings, and emperors that fill the sanctuaries and agoras, or the niches of theatres, stadiums, libraries, baths, Nymphaeums, and other public buildings. 

But some inscriptions will surprise many of us. 

For instance, this stele at the Louvre Museum holds the accounts of the Parthenon Treasury. The text covers both sides of the stele made of Pentelikon marble and illustrates how democracy works. Athens’ magistrates submitted the public accounts to the citizens for all to see. The front side, beneath a relief of the Sacred Olive Tree flanked by Athena and the people (demos), displays the expenses for military operations, religious ceremonies, and the Panathenaic festival held in honor of their patron goddess for 410-409 BC. The reverse side has the expenditures for 407-406 BC.

In Butrint, Albania, a striking series of inscriptions is carved on the outside walls of the Roman Theater of Buthrotum, as the city was called in antiquity. 

They are hard to read but worth our attention because these are manumissions, slaves who had gained their freedom for whatever reason. Their sheer number is mind-blowing!

As surprising and revealing are the Edicts on prices! Who would have thought that there were strict rules to define the prices of goods in antiquity! 

The first such example I encountered was at Ptolemais in Libya, proclaimed by Emperor Diocletian in 301 AD.

Also by Diocletian is the Edict on maximum prices for products and labor discovered in Halicarnassus, dated to 301 AD. The Emperor hoped to stave off a financial crisis and prevent inflation. 

Although this tablet was unearthed in Bodrum (the modern name for Halicarnassus), bits of similar Edicts were also found in Pergamon, Aizanoi, Aphrodisias, and Stratonikea. It is quite surprising to read that the Edict from Halicarnassus consists of 37 parts. Part 9, for instance, is about shoes and boots … 27 different kinds and sizes are listed!

Taxes are another matter that deserves attention. One such inscription that is hard to miss can be seen on Curetes Street in Ephesos, close to the Library. 

This tax law was written in the second half of the 4^th century AD, during the rule of Emperors Valentian I, Valens, and Gratian.

Less obvious is Alexander’s tax remission from the wall of the Temple of Athena in Priene, now exhibited in the British Museum in London. 

Alexander contributed to the cost of building the unfinished temple, and in return, he was allowed to dedicate it: “King Alexander dedicated the temple of Athena Polias”. 

This text was followed by a longer inscription setting out the terms of an agreement between Alexander and Priene under which the city was to be exempt from taxation. 

Not all inscriptions were written in Greek or Latin, and I find it fascinating to hunt for these exceptions. 

Having a closer look at Lycia’s sarcophagi strewn throughout the landscape, I discovered texts that seemed to be written in Greek but are in Lycian, as they contain several odd letters that do not exist in the Greek alphabet. Antiphellos and Limyra have good illustrations of Lycian texts.

Another case is to be found in Sillyum some 25 kilometers northeast of Antalya, an often overlooked site although the hillside is easily spotted in the otherwise flat plain of Pamphylia. 

It takes some detective work to locate the inscription in the Pamphylian language carved in the doorpost of a Hellenistic building – a very rewarding effort though!

The people of ancient Side also had a language of their own. A small inscription has survived and can be seen at the local museum located inside the remains of the Roman Baths.

After Alexander conquered Lycia and Pamphylia, Greek became the lingua franca, and the local tongues disappeared.

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 4, the Doge’s Palace

Who would check every detail of the Palace of the Doge in Venice, except the dedicated scholar? None of the millions of tourists has the patience or dedication to investigate, beyond the general overview. 

[San Marco Square, Doge's Palace on the left]

The Palace was built in the 12^th century. The concept is atypical, displaying a smooth wall with a geometric pattern of white and pink stone, which rests upon two levels of colonnades. At ground level this is an arched white stone colonnade; on the first floor, it is a loggia enhanced with quatrefoil openings in white Istrian stone. The top of the Palace is crowned with white lace stonework merlons as seen in Persepolis and Central Asia. 

The capitals on top of the columns are all different and have many stories to tell. They serve not only as decorations but also as examples of historical, moral, and political teaching. We will recognize biblical scenes, Christian virtues, medieval symbolism, the Twelve Signs of the Zodiac, aspects of everyday life, and people of the world. 

[Doge’s Palace, south facade, Alexander the Great, ca. 1350 from Engramma]

It is in this last group that Alexander the Great pops up with the inscription ALEXANDER MACEDONIAE REX as one of the Kings of the World. He is to be found on top of the fifth column counting from the Ponte della Paglia. The picture from Engramma is not the best but is the only one available. It will have to do…

Seminar on Alexander the Great

Jona Lendering, whose name is well-known from his Livius internet site, will give a seminar on Alexander the Great in the Netherlands. This is wonderful news for the Dutch-speaking people and in particular those who do not read the otherwise widely available English literature.

[Picture from Livius]

The event will take place in Wormerveer 14 kilometers northwest of Amsterdam in four separate lectures each time at 1:30 pm on Thursdays from 26 September to 3, 10, and 17 October 2024 at the Buurtcentrum de Lorzie. The standard ticket sells for 120 euros.

For more details, please click on Cursus: Alexander de Grote

Persepolis as it was 2500 years ago

In the frame of the unique exhibition Persia: Ancient Iran and the Classical World in 2022, I shared several informative links from the Getty Museum about Persepolis in particular (see: Fascinating Persepolis). 

Last month, the Getty added a wonderful YouTube reconstruction of the Palace of Persepolis as if you visited the plateau during its heyday with all the walls, columns, and colorful paintings to welcome us - the Palace as Alexander and his Macedonians have seen it! 

Those who had the immense pleasure of visiting the site will easily get their bearings while the others can let their imagination run free! Enjoy!

“To the strongest”

“To the strongest” are the last words Alexander pronounced on his deathbed in Babylon when pressed to name his successor. 

His Companions and generals were obviously panicking at the thought of being left behind so many miles away from Macedonia without their king to guide them. They desperately needed him. 

Ever since he became king in 336 BC Alexander had shown his commanders the way and led his men by example. He certainly did not expect to die at the age of 33 and not in his bed. How could he have foreseen to be incapacitated and unable to be his own self? 

The only person who had always been at his side and enjoyed his full confidence had died the previous year. Hephaistion had been officially appointed as his Chiliarch, his second in command. The sudden death of his dearest friend left him in total disarray and maddened by grief. He was truly alone at a time when he had to make the hardest decision of his life and elect a successor. “Who, Alexander? Tell us who!” are the words Oliver Stone put in the mouth of Ptolemy. How appropriate! 

“To the strongest” has often been understood as a weak and evasive statement, although, in reality, Alexander’s last words are one final proof of his genius! Had he not been so much afflicted by his illness and impaired by the high fever, he would have found the strength to elaborate a solution to the Succession with his close Companions. He would likely have appointed Perdiccas. Even so, Alexander’s decision may have lost its power two years onward, and the commanders would have taken the matter into their own hands anyway.

Of course, everyone around the king’s deathbed still hoped to be appointed and hear his name called out. However, matters were not as straightforward as one might think. On the one hand, he had to name an heir since, as King, he needed a successor, and on the other hand, as commander in chief of his army, he had to appoint a capable military leader. 

At this point, his most experienced generals were Craterus and Perdiccas. Yet, Craterus was in Cilicia taking 10,000 veterans back to Macedonia with Alexander’s instructions to replace Antipater as Regent in Pella. Perdiccas was in Babylon and took the king’s succession into his hands. 

Roxane was pregnant, but the child had not been born yet, and there was no guarantee it would be a boy. Alexander had never recognized Heracles, his son by Barsine. In any case, Roxane’s son and Heracles were too young to rule, and the generals would have to choose a Regent pending their coming of age. The next best option was to push Arrhideus forward. He was Alexander’s simple-minded half-brother and not capable of becoming the de facto ruler. As a result, Perdiccas was elected Regent at the Partition of Babylon. 

This implied, however, that he would rule over Alexander’s Companions and generals. Perdiccas’ success was short-lived, though, and in 321 BC he was sidelined at Triparadeisus as the commanders decided to divide the kingdom among themselves. When Perdiccas escorted Alexander’s remains to be buried in Macedonia, Ptolemy hijacked the mummified body and took it to Egypt. In a desperate attempt to recover his king’s remains, Perdiccas failed totally to march his men across the Nile. His losses were so excessive that his soldiers revolted and killed him. 

These were uncertain times for all the parties involved in the Succession Wars. They all had the ambition to rule over Alexander’s Empire and felt equally qualified to do so, but none shared Alexander’s vision. Ultimately, they eliminated each other until the empire was divided between Ptolemy, Seleucos, Antigonus, and Cassander (see: Dividing the Spoils. The War for Alexander’s Empire by Robin Waterfield).

None of the great men who fought alongside Alexander for almost twelve years emerged as the strongest. They all had learned a lot, but none could come close to Alexander’s charisma and exceptional genius.

A nearly perfect head of Zeus from Aphrodisias

Aphrodisias was known for its skillful sculptors throughout the Roman Empire. They took advantage of the nearby marble quarries that provided a typical medium-grained variation of the readily available material. Whoever drives through Asia Minor cannot miss the often colorful patches of marble quarries that dot the landscape.  

[Picture is from Arxaia Ellinika]

The many monuments excavated in Aphrodisias expose the great craftsmanship of its builders, embellished with reliefs and statues as testified by the latest find. 

It is a nearly perfect, colossal marble head of Zeus recovered about 50 meters west of the famous Temple of Aphrodite. It is 66 centimeters high, i.e., larger than life-size. The deep relief of the god’s hair and beard indicates that the head belongs to the 2^nd-3^rd century AD. At the same time, it makes Zeus’ face look more realistic. 

For the history of Aphrodisias, please read my earlier blog, Aphrodisias, the city of Aphrodite (Turkey).

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 3, the Pala d’Oro

Finding Alexander on the Pala d’Oro, the high altar of the Basilica San Marco in Venice is extremely difficult. 

[Pala d'Oro from Saint Mark's Basilica]

The golden altarpiece is a unique work of Byzantine enamel thought to be commissioned in 976. It acquired its present shape and size (three meters wide and two meters high) in 1345. It is made of gold and silver and counts 187 enamel plaques alternating with nearly 2,000 gemstones. 

The enamels in the top part of the Pala d’Oro are a group of six images representing the Life of Christ arranged around Archangel Michael. The bottom section tells the life of St Mark. A central picture of Christ Pantocrator is surrounded by the Four Evangelists and flanked by twelve Apostles, six on either side. 

Hardly noticeable in this opulence of precious metal and colorful stones are the small roundels and busts of Saints in the surrounding cornice. 

Of particular interest are the six enamel Byzantine plaques of 4.4 cm in diameter at the very bottom dated to the 11^th century. 

They depict three scenes of falconers on horseback (as in Eastern iconography): 

The stylized image of Alexander the Great elevatus ad aerem (lifted into the skies) as seen in the relief on the north façade of the Basilica San Marco in Venice:

The Tree of Life, a representation of the world, is seen as a paradisiacal garden. In the center is a tree surrounded by two serpents, but also the rivers that circumscribe the emerged lands. It is the world that, in the ancient and medieval versions of the Romance, Alexander sees from above, in the cosmic vision that concludes his mystical flight. 

And a bust of Emperor Constantine of which I have no picture. 

There is nothing to link these themes together except perhaps that the enamels were gifts from the Imperial Court of Constantinople to the Doge of Venice. They were interpreted as divine inspiration through the centuries from the days of Alexander the Great to the Roman Emperor Constantine, the Byzantine emperors, and finally to the Venetian Republic. 

The six roundels, in fact, summarize the vision of Doge Dandolo to make the Venetian Republic the true and rightful heir of the Roman Empire. It is not surprising that he turned the Pala d’Oro into a most splendid centerpiece of the Basilica. 

It is remarkable to find Alexander still present as Kosmokrator (Ruler of the World) some 1700 years after his untimely death. Even today, we greatly underestimate his wide contribution to mankind, which is way beyond his military and political achievements.

[Pictures of the enamel roundels are from Engramma]
[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 4, the Doge's Palace]

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 2, from Constantinople

Alexander is also featured on the north façade of the Basilica di San Marco in Venice. Here is a relief taken from Constantinople after the sack and looting by the Crusaders in 1204 together with the bronze horses that found a prominent place above the entrance to the Basilica. 

[Alexander lifted into the skies – from Engramma]

Looking at the photograph in the article published by Engramma, my thoughts immediately go back to a similar picture of Alexander in the Cathedral of Otranto in southern Italy where he is part of a huge mosaic floor created between 1163 and 1165 (see: Alexander’s presence in Magna Graecia). 

In the Venetian relief, Alexander is seated on a chariot, which is not clearly visible in Otranto's mosaic, pulled by winged griffins who lift him up into the skies. The motif is said to be very common in the 12^th-13^th century. 

Initially, the relief was not a decorative piece but a precious trophy like the famous bronze quadriga and other artifacts used to represent the transfer of the symbolic continuity from Constantinople to Venice. The ambition of the Venetian Doge was boundless as he strived to move in Alexander’s footsteps as ruler of the world. Nothing less …!

[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 3, the Pala d'Oro]

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 1, his tomb

It should not come as a surprise to find traces and testimonies of the glory of Alexander in Venice, Italy, centrally located between East and West. It is remarkable though that it dates to so many centuries after his death! 

The first time I heard of Alexander being linked to Venice was in Andrew Chugg’s book, The Lost Tomb of Alexander the Great. During his investigation, the author found a stone in the Cloister of Sant’Apollonia displaying a well-preserved relief of a Macedonian star together with remains of military panoply. 

In his next book, The Quest for the Tomb of Alexander the Great Chugg develops his findings leading to the time where the worship of Alexander as the Founder of Alexandria is curiously overlapped by St Mark, the Founder of the Alexandrian Church shortly after 391 AD. This coincides with the disappearance of Alexander’s corpse and the first appearance of St Mark’s tomb. In 828 AD, the corpse of St Mark was abducted by the Venetians, who on 8^th October 1094 placed it in a tomb in the crypt of the Basilica of San Marco in Venice. Because of the repeated flooding, the tomb became at risk in its downstairs crypt, and in 1811 it was moved to the high altar on the main floor where it still stands today. 

The key question is: are these remains indeed those of St Mark or could they belong to Alexander the Great, swapped somewhere back in the obscure days of the 4^th century AD? 

A simple visual examination could give enough clues to assert whether or not this body is Alexander’s, based on the wounds he received during his life. Another possibility would be a facial reconstruction that would faithfully disclose the face of either Mark or Alexander. A stunning thought! But the Church does not allow any access to the corpse or any form of examination whatsoever. 

[Cloister of Sant'Apollonia, shield with Macedonian star and remains of panoply]

Returning to the artifacts at the Cloister of Sant’Apollonia, they were recovered when the corpse was moved from the crypt to the present location in the Basilica. One stone of 140x120x30 cm displays a Macedonian shield of 70 cm in diameter, i.e., life-size. Besides the typical relief of the 8-pointed starburst shield, the relief shows a Macedonian sword, the kopis, and a pair of greaves. How or why it ended up at the Cloister remains a mystery despite Chugg’s insistence on an independent thorough examination of the stone! 

The material itself holds its secret. An early analysis in 1998 established that the bloc must have belonged to a large Hellenistic monument dated to the 3^rd or early 2^nd century BC. The article from “La Rivista di Engramma” n. 76, December 2009, describes it as decoration for a Roman commemorative, honorary, or funerary monument honoring Alexander the Great from the 1^st century BC. It also defines the stone as Aurisina, after a marble quarry about 15 kilometers from Trieste. This origin is hard to reconcile with a sarcophagus imported from Alexandria. 

For now, the mystery remains intact.

[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 2, from Constantinople]