An update on the tomb of King Hecatomnos

Back in 2010, the discovery of the monumental sarcophagus belonging to King Hecatomnos made headlines due to illegal digging in the area of Milas, Mylasa in antiquity (see: Sensational archaeological find near Milas). 

Nothing much has been heard since as the standard procedure implies closer study, cleaning, restoration, and thorough analysis – that is till now. 

This find is important for two reasons. Firstly, Hecatomnos is the father of King Mausolos, who built the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus. Secondly, the tomb of Hecatomnos is found in Mylasa, which was the capital of Caria in his days. Besides, this tomb allows historians and archaeologists to establish a continuity in the architecture and art of Caria before the construction of Mausolos’ Mausoleum. Although he ruled (391 - 377 BC) as satrap over Caria loyal to the Persian king Artaxerxes II, Hecatomnos was fascinated by the Greek culture and respected the religious beliefs of his people. 

The mausoleum of King Hecatomnos was built not unlike the concept used a few years later by his son in Halicarnassus, his new capital of Caria. That does not really come as a surprise since one of the architects for both mausoleums built in the center of the respective capital cities was Piteos.

Unfortunately, the available information does not provide a clear image of the excavation site or the mausoleum itself. The crepidoma with seven steps is being mentioned as running around the entire perimeter of the mausoleum. Still, even the 3D reconstruction is not very helpful to get a comprehensive picture. 

Apparently, the mausoleum stood on top of the stairs of the crepidoma. The building gave access to an underground burial space where the impressive sarcophagus was discovered. It is being mentioned in the article by the Daily Sabagh that the treasure hunters damaged the gold leaf paintings and the sarcophagus paintings inside the tombs (plural?) and that the images on the murals are related to Hecatomnos. It would have been very enlightening to have some photograph or drawing of the layout to imagine what the site looks like. The article also mentions a well-preserved entrance gate and plans to create an open-air museum for visitors to access the tomb.

On the positive side, it may be noted that in 2014 a stela carrying the longest poem from the Classic era was discovered on the site (see: Precious stela with the longest poem from Classical Greece). In 2017, a gold crown surfaced in Scotland said to belong to Hecatomnos. It has been returned to Turkey.

[The picture of the tomb is from the Daily Sabagh. The 3D drawing can be found in an interesting article written by Anna Frascari. The picture of the gold crown is from Archaeology News Network]

Achaemenid Palace found in Northern Turkey

It is still early days but it appears that remains of an Achaemenid Palace are surfacing from excavations at the Oluz Mound near Amasya which lies some 125 km south of Samsun.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network]

The columns and the throne chamber, probably part of a reception chamber indicate a Persian origin and have been dated to 450 BC. The site measuring 280x260 meters lies on top of Oluz Mound rising fifteen meters above the plain level.

Interestingly, the site shows presence of earlier settlements belonging to the Anatolian Iron Age and the Hittite period based on a bull figurine recovered during the excavations. Archaeologists have established that there is a large Hittite city underneath the Persian remain and they suppose this could be Shanovhitta.

So far, six columns from the prospective palace have been unearthed but that is far too little to establish a clear plan of the building. We will have to wait the outcome of further digging on this site for more tangible details.

Importance of the Meander River (western Turkey)

The River Meander in Asia Minor played an important role in the history of Miletus and Priene because its large alluvial deposits completely changed the landscape. Miletus in particular had four harbors on the Gulf of the Aegean Sea but with time they silted up and even the Island of Lade has been entirely integrated into the flat alluvial plain. (see: Miletus, Alexander’s first siege in Asia). Part of the water body still exists today but is cut off from the Aegean by the deposits and goes by the name of Lake Bafa.

[Picture from Hurriyet Daily News]

The Meander, modern Menderes River, is 550 km long and truly meanders through southwestern Turkey, irrigating farmlands and carrying industrial waste mainly from juice factories.

An alarming article has been published in the Hurryiet Daily News stating that the Meander is the country’s third most polluted river. For many years, experts have warned about this situation and are once again calling for an intervention in order to avoid environmental disasters since human health is in danger as well.

At its source near Dinar, the water is crystal clear and many species of birds and fish thrive but once it enters the province of Uşak where leather is treated on an industrial scale the water changes color, and the smell becomes unbearable the further you go downstream. There is a ban on fishing in these tainted waters and it has been established that some 1.5 million trout have been killed in the process. Entering the village of Balata, the water is as black as coal and smells of rotten animal corpses. At the mouth of the river, fish die by the thousands every week.

It is terribly sad that such a proud river from antiquity has been mistreated by successive civilizations making it unfit not only for agricultural irrigation but mainly for drinking. Fish and birds are dying but the rate of human death is much higher for those living along the river banks. A true disaster for mankind.

Over centuries, the Meander River has been the lifeline on which people could rely and that is no longer the case.

It appears that the Meander is not an isolated case. In another article, the Hurried Daily News reveals that 79% of Turkey’s freshwater bodies are polluted. That is particularly true for the western coast of Turkey (provinces of Muğla and Izmir) and also for Istanbul.

Tel-Gomel - in other words, Gaugamela

It is all in the name but it needs to be proved. Linguistically, Gaugamela has already been associated by scholars and archaeologists with Tel Gomel or Gammagara or Gir-e Gomel or Gogomel located some fifty kilometers northwest of Arbil or Erbil, the capital of modern Kurdistan, Iraq. Excavations at Erbil have been carried out since 2015 (see: Arbela, near the Battlefield of Gaugamela) and now it is the turn of Tel Gomel.

[View of Tel Gomel, perhaps the site of the battle of Gaugamela [Credit Terra di Ninive]

The Kurdish and Italian archaeologists are very eager to substantiate this name- link through new analysis on the spot now that more peaceful times in Iraq seem to allow them to work on the terrain. So far, they were able to confirm that the site was continuously inhabited from the Neolithic Period onward.

From what has transpired so far, Tel Gomel was a necropolis used by the people of Gaugamela that yielded vessels containing offerings for the dead. The cemetery was already used by the Assyrians but at a lower level monumental graves from 1700-1550 BC have been unearthed. Among these a brick grave with a vaulted burial chamber is of particular interest. Digging deeper, archaeologists uncovered an even older cemetery dating from 2600-2300 BC.

Beyond this, they also scrutinized the layers belonging to the period running from 2000 BC to the Parthian occupation in 300 AD, but no mention has been made of Alexander’s time.

At this stage, it is not clear in how far this research is centered on Tel Gomel itself or on the surrounding plain which is assumed to be the battlefield where Alexander defeated the Persian King Darius in 331 BC. What’s more, it is most improbable to find any Macedonian grave in the city’s cemeteries for they would have buried their dead according to their own practices and rites. 

Excavations will resume in 2019. Wait and see.

Alexandre le Grand by Gustave Droysen

This specific book, Alexandre le Grand by Gustave Droysen (ISBN 2-87027-077-1), is not much known among the admirers of Alexander the Great and certainly not to the English speaking public.

As a native of Treptow, now part of Poland, Gustave Droysen wrote his book in 1833 in German but we had to wait a full century to find it translated into French. The translator is Jacques-Méchin, who later wrote a history of Alexander of his own, no doubt inspired by Droysen.  My edition dates from 1981 and has respected the author’s original style as much as possible.

The German text is written in one piece, meaning that it has no chapters or points of reference. For the reader’s comfort, Jacques-Méchin has divided the book into Four Books in his translation.

It is clear that Droysen’s history does not include historical and archaeological discoveries made since 1833, especially in countries like Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran and Mesopotamia in general. He rather faithfully follows ancient historians like Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch and Curtius, without imposing his own views or opinions on us. His history is coherent and reads like a novel rather than a historical account.

In Droysen’s day, this book was taken in high esteem but with today’s reader it obviously will fall short because of the new developments that occurred over the past two hundred years. Besides, we have to consider his perception of the world against the events of his days when Napoleon had put archaeology on the map during his campaign in Egypt, which in turn triggered later explorations of Greece and Anatolia by men like H. Schliemann, C. Fellows, T.A.B. Spratt and J. Burckhardt to name just a few. In any case, the book certainly makes a good read.

The new Uşak Archaeology Museum

A few years ago, when I visited the Archaeological Museum of Ankara, I was surprised to find a gold brooch of a winged seahorse set in the spotlights, as there had been a lot of commotion about this piece, looted from a tomb in 1965 and recovered in 2013 after it was stolen again in 2005 (see: As Rich as Croesus).

To my greatest surprise, the same brooch pops up in the collection at the new Archaeology Museum in Uşak, together with 431 other artifacts from the Karun Treasures that once belonged to King Croesus of Lydia. This collection is what survives from the illegal digging at Toptepe, Ikiztepe, and Aktepe, not far from Uşak in western Turkey.

The museum was planned to open in 2013, but as always, those things are delayed. The new two-storey building houses 2,500 historical artifacts ranging from the Paleolithic Age up to the 20^th century. Special reference is made to finds from the ancient cities of Acmonia and Sebaste, of which nothing else is mentioned, and this makes me wonder about their location and history. Maybe when the museum is fully functioning, more information will become available?

In their article, The Hurriyet Daily News gives a link to pictures of the museum, but their labels are lacking information. Conclusion, this is all very interesting, but at the same time very vague and in great need of more details!

Excavation results from Magnesia-on-the-Meander

Magnesia-on-the Meander is one of the lesser-known archaeological sites in western Turkey. The Germans were the first to resurrect the site from its ashes, so to speak, at the end of the 19^th century. During those years, they managed to expose Magnesia’s theater and agora, the Temple of Artemis and the Temple of Zeus, and several other buildings. Excavations were resumed only in 1984 and again this year.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network. Credit: AA]

This time, six statues were recovered from the ruins of the Temple of Artemis, four female and one male, as the sixth one’s gender cannot be established. They were all found face-down in good condition. They will join ranks with fifty or so previously found statues that are now scattered over museums in Izmir and Aydin. The Archaeological Museum of Istanbul will get the best examples, as always, joining the existing collection of statues from the Temple of Artemis. The museum’s collection already possesses magnificent friezes from said temple and boasts an excellent scale reconstruction. Also exhibited there is a marble letter written by Darius I to the satrap of Asia Minor between 492 and 485 BC.

It is expected that future excavations will reveal more statues from this particular area.

Let’s not forget that Magnesia was one of the two dozen mints that were allowed to strike coins for Alexander the Great during his lifetime!

Exploring the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki

It is not common knowledge that many mighty Macedonian kingdom relics are kept at the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki. Grave goods from all over Macedonia and the many tombs discovered in the suburbs of Thessaloniki are on display.

Treasures ranging from delicate gold sheet ornaments found on funeral garments to numerous gold earrings, pendants, necklaces, rings, fibulae, bracelets, and coins await the unprepared visitor. The most remarkable artifacts are the exquisite gold wreaths of olive, ivy, myrtle, and oak leaves. Looking closely, we'll discover the tiny figure of Heracles or his typical knot. When a crowd of people walks around, these little flowers and leaves tend to tremble; imagine the effect they have when worn live! 

The wealthiest finds come from the so-called Derveni Tombs, some 10 km NW of Thessaloniki. One of these tombs yielded twenty silver vases, many alabaster and bronze vases, terracotta vessels, some of which were gilded, and iron weapons, including a pair of bronze greaves. But the pièce de résistance is the richly decorated bronze crater generally referred to as the Derveni Crater, which is worth exploring in detail.

The Derveni Crater stands 90 cm tall and weighs some 40 kg. It is not made of gold, as one would assume at first glance, but of a bronze alloy containing about 15% tin, which produces its unique golden sheen. Different metals were used for the figures and other decoration elements, and inlays of silver, copper, bronze, etc. The motives are a mere hymn to the god Dionysus, who sits naked next to Ariadne and familiarly rests his leg on his wife's thigh. Behind the newlywed couple stands a panther, the animal sacred to the god. Around the crater and surrounding the couple, we recognize satyrs and maenads in their orgiastic dance. Two more maenads, a resting Dionysus, and a sleeping satyr, are all sitting cozily on the shoulders of the vase. 

Vine and ivy branches, palm leaves, and acanthus in different metal colors among tame and wild animals are depicted on the bands above and under the relief of the godly couple. This crater dates from between 330 and 320 BC. It was made either by a sculptor from the Chalcidice trained in Athens or by a bronzesmith from the Royal Court of Alexander.

It is one of the pieces that truly stands for the wealth and beauty that existed at the Macedonian palaces and surrounding Alexander.

Some more vessels and jugs from these graves are labeled bronze, although they shine like gold. Such a high standard of art! An excellent iron pectoral from Pydna also has a thin gold sheet, unlike the Macedonian ones exhibited elsewhere.

This gold medallion represents Queen Olympias wearing a chiton and a light himation to cover her hair, and is worth the visit altogether. The medallion's reverse depicts a sea monster, half bull, half fish, with a nude woman sitting on its back. The figure could well be the Nereid Thetis, mother of Achilles – clearly inspired by Alexander's admiration for Homer's tales. It appeared during the games held in honor of Alexander at Beroea in 225-250 AD. This medallion is part of the hoard of twenty such pieces found in Abukir, near Alexandria, in 1902. 

Three other medallions are part of the Berlin Bode Museum collection. It is pure joy to admire these priceless portraits of Alexander, one with Nike and another with a diadem. Eleven of the other medallions went to the Calouste Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon, Portugal; the one depicting Emperor Caracalla, a great admirer of Alexander, is at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, USA. It is the only existing picture of Olympias, although it is probably idealized.

Beyond this precious and unique collection of Macedonian gold, the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki holds another rare treasure: Europe's oldest surviving papyrus, also found at Derveni. Since the roll to which it belongs dates to around 340 BC, the papyrus is contemporary with Philip II and Alexander! The bits of papyrus belong to a philosophical treatise, a commentary on an Orphic poem concerning the birth of the gods, probably written in Attica around 420-410 BC. 

It certainly pays off to venture downstairs, where the Tomb of Agios Athanasios occupies a privileged room. However, that story has already been covered (see: The Macedonian Tomb of Agios Athanasios in Thessaloniki).

[Picture from Thessaloniki Travel]

There is, of course, far more to discover in the sections about the Kingdom of Macedonia and Thessaloniki, the Metropolis of Macedonia, that fit in the broader Alexander context. Most noticeable is, for instance, a lovely head of what could be young Alexander from the 2nd century AD. The inscription mentions "Thessalonica daughter of Philip, Queen" from 150-200 AD. It means Alexander's half-sister. Also, a fascinating relief dedicated to Hephaistion from Pella, 320-300 BC  (see: Another effigy of Hephaistion?). Besides, there is a wide assortment of sarcophagi, funerary steles, inscriptions, statues, mosaics, and architectural elements from all over Macedonia and from Thessaloniki, like the columns from the Temple of Aphrodite (see: Thessaloniki's Temple of Aphrodite).

Please, do include a visit to this magnificent museum next time you are in the area – or hop a plane if you happen to be in Athens, for instance. It is worth the extra mile!

[Click here for more pictures from the Archaeological Museum in Thessaloniki]

Thracian Tombs at Doxipara, Greece

Thracia is generally associated with Bulgaria, but originally its borders extended from the Istros River (now the Danube forming the border between Bulgaria and Romania) to the Aegean Sea and from the Hellespont, the Bosporus, and the Black Sea in the east to Philip’s Macedonia in the west. Today, the Greek province of Thrace still stretches from the Rhodope Mountains on its northern border with Bulgaria to the Aegean. It is squeezed between the Nestos River in the west and the Hebros in the east, forming the modern border with Turkey.

Because of its geographical position, Thrace was clearly a country at a significant crossroads. It functioned as a buffer zone in cultural and economic exchanges with its surrounding neighbors. 

When Philip became king of Macedonia, his eastern border was at the Strymon River, but he soon pushed further east, all the way to the Hellespont. After Alexander died in 323 BC, the cards were reshuffled between his generals, and eventually, it was Lysimachos who became King of Thrace. The Romans added the country to their empire and made it the Province of Thrace in 46 AD. Both Trajan and Hadrian (creating their own cities of Trajanopolis and Hadrianopolis) recognized the importance of Thrace, but, at the same time, left ownership in the hands of the indigenous population. 

One of the most characteristic heritages of Thracian civilization is their profusion of burial mounds – a tradition that goes back to the Bronze Age, the middle of the 4th-2nd millennium BC. In central Bulgaria alone, over 1,500 such tumuli exist in the Valley of the Thracian Kings, and so far, only 300 have been properly excavated. Among the most famous monuments to date are the richly painted Tomb of Kazanlak (see: Valley of the Thracian Kings) from the 4th century BC and the temple tomb of King Seuthes III, who died in 300 BC. 

Beyond Bulgaria, the typical Thracian tumuli are also found in Greece's most eastern Province of Thraiae. Here, the burial mound of Mikri Doxipara–Zoni is located. This one was constructed much later than the abovementioned ones, i.e., at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, when the region was under Roman rule. Obviously, the style and decoration of the tombs have evolved. From frescoed vaulted rooms to hold the deceased's cremated remains, to simple burials in the ground where the dead were put to rest together with their chariots and horses.

The tumulus of Doxipara is not very tall, hardly 7.5 meters high, but with its diameter of 60 meters, it is one of the largest in the region. It was situated close to the road that connected Hadrianopolis (modern Edirne in Turkey) to Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv in Bulgaria). 

Excavations started in 2002 have revealed four large pits containing the cremated remains of three males and one female. A total of five chariots and their draft animals have been exposed and can be divided into two groups. The first group is made of two chariots labeled B and C. The second group consists of three chariots labeled A, D, and E. Although four-wheeled wagons have been found in Europe and Asia, Greece is the first.

Close to each group are separate horse burial sites where the spare horses were laid to rest: two horses on site A and three horses on site B. In all cases, after the chariots carried the dead to the burial site, they were interred together with their still-harnessed horses. The wheels had been taken from the chariots. Today, the bronze rims, bolts, and other elements remain in situ since the wooden components have disintegrated occasionally, leaving their imprint on the clay bottom. At first sight, these remains closely resemble the picture of the Thracian chariot discovered lately in Bulgaria (see: The story of the Thracian chariot). Still, this site is much and much more extensive. 

Horses were a clear symbol of wealth and status for their owners, and it is assumed that the burial site of Doxipara belonged to a wealthy family of landowners. However, no houses or nearby residences have been located as yet. 

The entire tumulus has been dug out and removed, but the wagons and horse skeletons are left exactly where they were uncovered. This makes it a fascinating place to visit!

The tomb also contains the human remains of three men and one woman who died in close succession. They were cremated in appropriate pits with small animals like piglets or birds and fruit like walnuts, almonds, and pine nuts. Once the fire was extinct, the usual offerings that accompanied them in the afterlife were placed around the remains together with vessels in bronze, glass, and terracotta containing water, wine, milk, or honey. Personal possessions such as bronze lamps and lanterns, weapons, small jewelry, etc., were also added. Once this ritual was completed, the pits were filled with earth, and slowly a mound covered those interred. 

On the eastern flank of the tumulus, two platforms were exposed, which served as funerary altars.  

The site of Doxipara is a unique example of the funerary procedures of the Thracians in Roman times, proving that their own customs still prevailed on whatever rites were current in the Roman Empire.

[Click here to see all the pictures of The Thracian Tombs of Doxipara]

The preservation of Volubilis, a step in the right direction

When I visited Volubilis a few years ago (see: Volubilis in Morocco, hardly known), I expressed my disappointment about the overall poor condition and obvious neglect of the site.

Excavations here had started in 1915 but apparently they led to looting especially during Morocco’s colonial years when the country was ruled by the French. Yet, we cannot blame the French alone for this unhappy situation because since their departure in 1956 Volubilis is regularly victim to illegal “finds” of archaeological artfefacts, especially mosaics and ancient coins. In 1982, for example, a marble statue of Bacchus mysteriously disappeared and in spite of the personal intervention of King Hassan II, all efforts were in vain and the statue has never been recovered.

So it is great news to hear that after so many years of pillage and neglect, Volubilis is now properly fenced off and closely guarded by a newly appointed group of 14 custodians surveying the site day and night.

In order to draw more visitors and tourists to the site, a new museum has been built as well as a visitor center. This sounds very promising and we may hope that these measures will bring the expected results.

There are plans, it seems, to extend excavations as one third of the 17 ha wide city has never been touched.