Pergamon is simply huge

Pergamon, whose first settlement goes back to the 8th century BC, lies on a strategic hill above the modern city of Bergama in western Turkey. The location was so well chosen that even Alexander the Great did not consider attacking this fortified city but marched instead around it with the purpose of isolating it. After his death, his general Lysimachus by then King of Thracia chose Philetairos of Pergamon to secure his share of Alexander’s treasury. As can be expected, this Philetairos used it in 281 BC to found his own kingdom. Twenty years later, he left his realm to his nephew Eumenes I who ruled from 263 to 241 BC. After Eumenes, this splendid city fell into the hands of his heir, Attalus I (241-197 BC). The Attalid rulers were allies of Rome, much to the discontent of Philip V and Perseus of Macedonia, who both fought over this wealthy territory during the three Macedonian Wars. Thanks to their support against the Seleucids, the Attalids were rewarded with extended possessions in Asia Minor. By 188 BC, Pergamon and, with it, the Pergamon Empire had grown considerably and outshone all others, certainly as far as Hellenistic art was concerned. The last Attalid ruler, Attalus III, surrendered Pergamon to the Romans in 133 BC, thus becoming the capital of their Provincia Asia.

During one of my very first and not too brightest guided trips, I sat on the bus pounding over the brilliant history of Pergamon, trying to visualize Alexander's approach. We maneuvered through the narrow old and wide modern streets of Bergama till we reached a smaller road that rose up towards the four-kilometer-long city wall above the steep slopes. Square bulges overgrown with grass revealed that there were still a lot of stone blocks hidden there awaiting excavation. This impressive wall is the work of Eumenes II (197-159 BC), who wanted to build an Acropolis that would even outshine that of Athens – nothing less. 

The size of Pergamon is simply huge. My misfortune was that I had to follow my unforgiving guide, who just marched on, ignoring the streets, columns, and arches on our way – a very frustrating experience. It’s hard to get my bearings, maybe because excavations since 1875 were done by German archaeologists who like to leave things the way they find them unless they can take them apart as they did with the Altar of Zeus to bring the pieces to their museums. It comes as quite a shock to me when my guide points out the barren space once occupied by that very altar in the landscape. Not a single hint is left of that once so proud building! Such a pity since it is considered to be one of the most beautiful altars ever built and a very unusual one as well since it never served as a crepidoma to any temple at all. This enormous marble offer table dating from 180 BC stood on a huge plinth that also supported the double row of Ionic columns. The Pergamon Museum in Berlin houses this great altar, and the visitor has to use all his imagination to mentally transpose that building to this poor wind-stricken hill.

I give up trying to locate where I am, running after my guide and secretly vowing to return one day. I am impressed by the Temple of Trajan, which was completed after his death by Emperor Hadrian, measuring 68 x 58 meters and easily recognizable by its Corinthian columns, with an extra colonnade running all around the outside of the temple.

The Library, on the contrary, needs some guesswork. In antiquity, it was one of the richest in the world, and its 200,000 parchment scrolls went to Alexandria as Marc Antony’s wedding gift to his Queen Cleopatra. I think it is worth mentioning that until that time, all writing was done on papyri. It was only when Egypt decided to stop its exports that alternative solutions had to be found. It was here in Pergamon that the idea was born to use sheep and goat skins instead. These hides were smoothened with pumice and cut into handy sheets. That is how our parchment, the name borrowed from the city of Pergamon, was born. A strange paradox of life to see parchments enter Egypt, the land of the papyri.

After passing a large marble column carrying the symbols of Asclepius, i.e., two intertwined snakes facing each other across a wheel, I reach the Asclepion Complex. It was believed that since snakes shed their skins to be ‘reborn”, the patients would shed their ailments and illnesses to recover their health. The Asclepion was founded by the great healer Galen (Aeleus Galenus), who was born in Pergamon in 130 BC, where he studied medicine. Asclepius, the Greek god of health and medicine, was known since the 4th century BC, and Galen made great use of his knowledge not only as a doctor but also as a psychologist, although the very word did not yet exist. Galen had a thorough knowledge of human anatomy, physiology, and neurology. He had acquired his knowledge by studying wounded gladiators at the healing shrine of Asclepius. As the patients were led through a long vaulted corridor that had at regular intervals circular openings in the ceiling to let in the light, he may have resorted to the therapeutic use of water and music. Water from a nearby source runs down the stairs and follows the entire length of the corridor wall - the longest such passageway I’ve ever seen. I’m not sure if the echo under these vaults was beneficial to the patients and if I can believe my guide, who suggested that the patients were drugged with opium in their drinking water, meaning that by the time they reached the end of the corridor, they were so confused that they wandered around in the labyrinth that awaited them at the end of this dark passage. Of course, there were caretakers to guide them further to the Temple of Asclepion, where the priests gave them psychoanalysis two thousand years before Sigmund Freud was born! Next to the temple lies the theater belonging to the Asclepion Complex, in front of which one can still see several sacred pools that, even today, are generally filled with water in spring. The entire complex was, without any doubt a top-notch spa in antiquity! Well, even now, it is quite rewarding to walk here and imagine what must have been going on. 

In the center of Pergamon, one simply can’t miss the large theater, the steepest in the world. The oldest parts date from the 3rd century BC but, as always, it has been improved and enlarged several times, particularly under Emperor Caracalla. The portico of this theater measures no less than 246 meters and is approximately 16 meters wide. Unique is that this portico was removable since it covered the adjacent street. Strange, however, that it seated only 15,000 people, less than the theater in Ephesos, although this theater in Pergamon looks much larger. 

It is frightening to walk down the steep steps for the precipice is luring below. From the top rows, however, the visitor has a commanding view over the land around this acropolis and easily can appreciate the strategic location of Pergamon. Undoubtedly the very location of this city must have impressed Alexander. I definitely have to come back one day, were it only to put the many remains of so many buildings on the map of my mind, and more so after seeing its treasures in Berlin.

At the Pergamon Museum of Berlin, the entire Altar of Zeus has been carefully reconstructed, meaning that all the friezes that ran around it have been put in their right sequence. However, the visitor is looking at them inside-out. Instead of actually walking around the altar, the elements have been placed against the wall surrounding the central part with the flight of stairs leading to the platform. Somehow I find it hard to figure this out properly. But then there is a wonderful reduced model in what looks like marble, reflecting the full impact of what this famous altar must have looked like. Such a shame there is close to nothing left in Pergamon, though …

[Click here to see all pictures of Pergamon]

Was Hannibal superior to Alexander? No way!

There really is no way to compare Alexander and Hannibal, I know, but I lately watched a program about the exploits of Hannibal crossing the Alps with his elephants, in which it was mentioned that Hannibal achieved the greatest exploit ever by crossing the Alps. Is that so? How about Alexander crossing the Hindu Kush? This was simply too much for me and I went in search of some facts and figures to defend the case of Alexander.

I will not deny that Hannibal leading his army and most of all his elephants over the Alps in 218 BC (at the beginning of the Second Punic War with Rome) was a quite unique and daring undertaking, but there is no way this achievement could match or surpass Alexander’s march across the Hindu Kush roughly some one hundred years earlier.

The figures recorded by Polybius reveal that Hannibal traveled with 40,000 foot soldiers, 4,000 horsemen, and 37 elephants. Alexander on the other hand, having left Macedonia with 40,000 soldiers and 1,500 cavalry, lead an army of 100,000 men, an unknown number of cavalry and horses, and no elephants over the unforgiving heights of the Hindu Kush.

On top of that, there is no way to compare the Alps with the Hindu Kush. Once again I let the figures speak for themselves. The highest top of the Alps is Mont Blanc reaching 4,810 meters, while the highest summit of the Hindu Kush lies at 7,690 meters. Consequently, the passes over the respective mountain ranges are situated at quite different altitudes as well. Scholars have argued at length about the most probable route Hannibal could have followed. Based on the reports from Polybius and Livy, it is generally agreed that the lowest pass, the Col de Montgenèvre between Briançon in France and Susa in Italy was the most probable choice, located at 1,854 meters. Alexander on the other hand used the Khawak Pass at 3,848 meters in 329 BC when he moved his huge army from the Kabul Valley in Afghanistan to Bactria in the north. Two years later he crossed the Hindu Kush in the opposite direction to enter Pakistan, using the easier yet more famous Khyber Pass situated at 1,070 meters.

Of course, crossing the Alps by itself was an exploit and the Romans themselves felt they were a solid natural barrier. Crossing them with elephants was absolute madness (Hannibal was probably driven by his deep hatred for the Romans) and in the end it seems that only two dozen of them survived the expedition. Yet, that by itself is not enough, in my eyes, to place him above Alexander! His march is a heroic one in its own right, generally not stressed enough as it is very hard for us in the West to imagine what the overall travel conditions through the Hindu Kush range and passes and what its challenges are. Alexander’s men suffered dearly, especially in 329 BC as winter lingered on much longer than usual and the troops were often caught in blizzards where men and beasts froze to death if they dared stop moving. 

More often than not Alexander is forgotten in our western history while he opened up much of Asia. For ten years, his amazing campaigns lead him all the way to India across unforgiving deserts, wide and fast-flowing rivers, and daring mountain ranges of which the Hindu Kush definitely is the highest. The story of Hannibal’s elephants or the conquests of Julius Caesar in France, Germany, and Britain are much more familiar to us than Alexander’s challenging and daring march through Asia. That is not fair!

[Pictures from Wikipedia]

Via Egnatia, a road to remember

During my first visit to Philippi (Greece), I noticed the inscription “Via Egnatia” next to what appeared to be a Roman road running a couple of meters below the modern road and parallel to it.

Till then, I only knew about the main roads of Italy, like the Via Appia, the Via Emilia, Via Aurelia, Via Flaminia, the Via Trajana, and the Via Ostiensis, to name only a few, but the Via Egnatia?

Since it bordered the Roman Agora at Philippi, it must have been important, and I soon found out that it ultimately connected to Rome. Built in the 2nd century AD, it started back in Byzantium, running through Thracia, Macedonia (Philippi, Kavala, Amphipolis, Thessaloniki, Pella, Edessa, Florina) over the mountain passes to Lake Ohrid; from there, over a difficult stretch along the Genusus River to the Adriatic Sea at Dyrrachium (originally Epidamnos), today’s Durrës in Albania opposite the port of Brindisi on the Italian Peninsula; hence the connection to Rome. Like most Roman roads, it was about six meters wide, and in many places, it was covered with large stone slabs. In total, it covered a distance of 1,120 kilometers. According to Strabo, it was named after Gnaeus Egnatius, proconsul of Macedonia, who seems to have initiated its construction, although that has not been proven yet. The road was expanded and improved many times, and for centuries, it remained Rome's vital link with its eastern provinces.

[picture from Wikipedia]

The Via Egnatia made history when Julius Caesar and Pompey marched over it, fighting for supremacy during the Great Roman Civil War that lasted from 49 to 45 BC. Leading to the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, the armies of Marc Antony and Octavian pursued Cassius and Brutus along the same road, and several milestones have been recuperated, recording the many crucial events of its life span. By the fifth century AD, large sections fell into disrepair, especially at its western end, and the Via Egnatia became more of a name than an actual highway.

The modern version, called Egnatia Odos, now links Igoumenitsa on the Adriatic coast to Greece’s eastern border with Turkey - a distance of 670 km and a worthy ode to the ancient Via Egnatia.

[Egnatia Odos]

Many portions of the antique highway have survived, and the best known, I think, is to be found in Philippi. But this soon may change with the discovery of a marble-paved road at a depth of three meters during the construction works for the metro in Thessaloniki. Many tombs and graves from the fourth century BC to the fourth century AD once lined this road and yielded many offerings that accompanied the dead. So far, 1,500 pieces of silver, gold, and copper jewelry have been unearthed, as well as gold coins from Persia, glass perfume bottles, terracotta vessels, and even eight golden wreaths.

The Lion Horoscope of Mount Nemrud

I already talked in detail about the unique location of Mount Nemrud in Mount Nemrud, as close as you can come to the gods, and referred to the Lion Horoscope in my discussion, Alexandria was born under a regal star.

Mount Nemrud is a colossal funeral monument built for Antiochus I Commagene at 7,000 feet in eastern Turkey. It must already have been an extraordinary place in the first century BC. The two terraces of this tomb are directed towards the summer and winter solstices. It has recently been figured out that the colossal (now beheaded) statues on the eastern side faced the Regulus Star on the 23rd of July, i.e., the date of Antiochus' ascent to the throne, as mentioned in the inscriptions on the monument. Additionally, Antiochus explicitly refers to Alexander the Great as his ancestor in the abovementioned inscriptions. 

 

The Lion Horoscope that once adorned the west terrace is absolutely unique. From what I understand, it is now locked inside a grave chamber that has not yet been excavated. Meanwhile, the wildest stories go around about the significance of this relief.

 [Picture from Nemrud Tourist Information]

The conclusions published on the site of Learning Sites are open for discussion. This is what they say:

• The site possesses the earliest extant Greek Horoscope in the form of a striding lion -   a reading of its date firmly fixes the site in time, a rarity in archaeological research. 
• The inscriptions on the back of the ancestor stela provide conclusive evidence, available nowhere else in the ancient world, for the sequence of Seleucid, Macedonian, and Persian rulers back to Alexander the Great and Darius I, making the steles on Nemrud Dagi crucial historical documents.
• Evidence exists here to demonstrate for the first time that Alexander was called "the Great" already in antiquity.
• The fusion of Greek and Persian deities and religious rituals at Nemrud Dagi, evident in the sculptural iconography and the inscriptions, provides stunning evidence of the extent to which the Mithraic religion had moved from the Near East toward Europe, marking here in Commagene the crucial crossing from East to West of this popular counterthrust to the emergence of Christianity.
• The attention Antiochus' craftsmen paid to precise historical details of regalia on the figures depicting rulers hundreds of years earlier than the Hellenistic age is unprecedented. [Read the complete story at the Learning Sites]. 

The relief, measuring 1.7 x 2.4 meters, is in itself rather intriguing. It shows a majestic-looking male lion covered with nineteen stars (in the shape of eight-pointed rays) set in such a way that they closely resemble the constellation of Leo. Above his back, three stars are depicted with sixteen points instead of eight. These are recognized as planets, i.e., Mars, Mercury, and Jupiter, labeled by their Greek names, Pyroeis Herakleos, Silboon Apollonos, and Phaeton Dios, respectively. An upturned moon crescent is under the lion's neck, symbolizing the New Moon. The star above this moon disk is Regulus, always associated with royalty throughout history, from Babylonian and Persian to Greek and Ptolemaic kings. ,

 

It is clear that in many ancient cultures, the lion was commonly used to symbolize power, magnificence, and dominance. It was first popular in the Near East, where we find lions on the walls of many palaces (Babylon, Susa, etc.) and on border stones. The lion definitely represented royalty at the time of the Commagene rulers. Also, many lions were found in Macedonia and Greece as symbols of royal power, later adopted by the Romans. 

The labeling of the Lion Horoscope may be a far-reaching one. What we actually have here are three elements: the lion or the constellation Leo (representing royalty, military, and political power), an inscription identifying the three planets (Mars, Mercury, and Jupiter), and the crescent symbolizing the moon goddess (source of fertility known as Tyche/Commagene). According to one theory, the Lion Horoscope was meant to contribute to the self-divination of King Antiochus I, placed at the center of this relief and depicted as a conquering lion. But then, there are a thousand and one other theories losing themselves between astronomy and astrology, although with interesting retro-active calculations placing the constellations in the skies of two thousand years ago. 

More details but not necessarily convincing elements can be found in this article by A. Öncü Güney, "An Iconological Study on the Lion Horoscope Relief of Nemrut Dag Hierothesion and on the site of Learning Sites mentioned above.

Nautilus exhibition puts Alexander in the spotlights

The BOZAR Museum in Brussels is hosting the exquisite exhibition NAUTILUS which can still be visited till Sunday, April 25, 2014. It is meant to highlight the close relationship between the ancient Greeks and the Mediterranean Sea – a quite understandable subject and certainly reason enough to have a look at the artifacts that are otherwise spread over many museums or that have never left the country.

It is no surprise to first be confronted with statues and pot-shards belonging to the Cyclades which go back to 3,000 BC. Then follow vases, bowls, drawings, reliefs, and small bronzes from Minoan and Mycenaean times. One of the striking objects is the life-size fresco of a fisherman from 1,600-1,500 BC graciously on loan from the Archaeological Museum of Thera. Fitting in the Mycenaean era are a set of gold cups hammered out with curly motives dating from 1550-1500 BC found in a tomb and on loan from the Archaeological Museum of Pylos.  From one small room to the next, the visitor is taken consecutively through Greece’s archaic, classical, and Hellenistic periods – more to my own taste, of course. There are theater masks, several reliefs from minor but not less interesting museums, and even an elegant bronze statuette of a boy riding a dolphin from the Acropolis Museum in Athens.

But then I freeze in my steps for here is Alexander the Great staring at me from the top of his transparent supporting pillar. What is he doing here? No idea, but I immediately recognize the head that belongs in the Museum of Pella where I missed it during my latest visit. Well, well, … good to see my friend!

Nearby, a series of coins are also exhibited with among them a silver tetradrachm of Alexander, a gold stater of Alexander, and a gold stater of Ptolemy I Soter. Well, useless to say that in spite of the pleasant tour of the exhibition Alexander made my day!

In the last room apparently rescued from the sea, were three splendid bronzes from Roman times, 2nd century AD: a statue of an unknown man, a magnificent head of a man with inlaid eyes wearing a Macedonian kausia, and the front part of a life-size dolphin.

All along the exhibition, the antique objects are intermingled with contemporary art, to what purpose I do not know. I don’t feel that these modern paintings and sculptures are adding anything at all to this exhibition. The photographs of seascapes on the contrary do reflect a taste of Greece and its seafarers in eons past.

The Macedonian War Machine by David Karunanithy

After all the books about Alexander's campaigns, The Macedonian War Machine (ISBN 184884618-5) finally gives us an inside view of the entire organization behind the day-to-day business as is suggested by the subtitle, "Neglected Aspects of the Armies of Philip, Alexander and the Successors 359-281 BC". A colossal job!

It is common knowledge that Alexander the Great owes his well-oiled and well-drilled army to his father, King Philip II of Macedonia. Alexander made his own additions and improvements, especially during his long march east. The Successors of Alexander reaped the fruits of this entire enterprise as they followed in his tracks.

It is an absolutely fabulous book discussing many aspects of the Macedonian army. Besides known and lesser-known antique authors, David Karunanithy also closely analyzes wall paintings and frescos, statues and reliefs, coins and medallions, tombs, and stelae spread among sites and museums worldwide, with astonishing results. Especially the Alexander Sarcophagus, treasured by the Museum of Istanbul, the famous Alexander Mosaic exhibited in the Museum of Naples, and the paintings from the Agios Athanasios Tomb, the proud possession of the Museum of Thessaloniki, offer an abundant source of information.

The author systematically scrutinizes the outfit of Macedonian infantry and cavalry distinctively, officers as well as common soldiers and servants: their sandals, their shin or calf-high boots (krepides) with hobnail soles or not; their protection greaves; their felt socks (pellytra) with open toes; their chlamydes (cloaks) and tunics for either winter or summer use; their muscle-cuirasses, gorgets and an assortment of corselets; their headgear from leather or woolen kausiai to Boeotian and Phrygian helmets; their bronze decorated and maybe painted and color-coded shields; their kopis (saber) and xiphos (straight sword); spears and sarissai; etc. These outfits and equipment had to be produced at key locations to be hauled and stored at preset points on Alexander's route. A full-blooded industry is hidden behind these services alone, and workshops and arsenals arose when and where needed with highly skilled and professional workmen.

Training the soldiers was another ongoing business where newcomers were taught how to handle their arms and move in formation, with drills and fake combats, forced marches, hunting, and all other aspects that would enhance their performance on the battlefield. It is evident that the cavalry had a training of their own – not to forget that horses had to be acquired, tamed, and made ready for combat. Over the years, many mounts had to be replaced, and we know what a keen eye Alexander had to select the very best animals any region could produce. His Companion cavalry was privileged with the Nisaean thoroughbreds, which were highly praised and celebrated as they were perhaps closely related to the modern Arabian horse. As the march eastward progressed, new breeds of large, strong horses were gradually introduced. A lot of care went into finding the best grazing lands while on the move; stables had to be built even on the way to shelter these noble animals.

The troops needed a constant supply of food, arms, armor, horses, and clothing. This meant that the importance of the baggage train in Alexander's army could not be underestimated and required adequate supervision by a highly reliable transport officer. The author feels that there is a good indication that this was one of Parmenion's tasks since he had gained invaluable experience under King Philip II. After the general's death, the post was most likely filled by Craterus or Erigyius. On the move through the many deserts of the East, food supplies were sealed and held at the center of the baggage train to ensure famished soldiers would not steal any of it.

The book also contains an enlightening chapter about camp life. It covers the role of the scouts, whose task was to choose the ideal location to set up camp. We get an insight into the layout of these camps that followed the Hippodamian plan in which every unit had its pre-established place with the King's quarters in its very center. A closer look is taken at the different palisades and entrenchments used depending on the terrain and whether or not traveling in a hostile country; the soldier's tents; the use of specific standards and banners; etc. Also, the security measures and signaling routines applied in the camp are discussed.

In fact, the list of topics is endless as David Karunanithy extensively scrutinizes the details of daily life and discipline of the Macedonian army before, under, and after Alexander. At the end of his book, he adds extensive information about the technical expertise required and widely used for building roads, causeways, bridges, siege machines, and all sorts of artillery. These technicians also were proficient in constructing altars, pyres, and harbors; deviating water courses; filling up ravines; planning the crossing of the many waterways, and digging for wells when water was scarce.

The sources David Karunanithy used to bring this vast amount of information together in an understandable language seem endless, ranging from scant notes from antiquity to modern analysis and studies, of which there are many. As a consequence, his reference bibliography is impressive. Useless to say that I couldn't grasp it all at once and had to re-read the entire book all over again, knowing that I would get back to it time and again.

The Macedonian War Machine underscores once again the massive and unique achievements of Philip II and the genius of Alexander the Great. No wonder the men who fought under either or both kings thrived on this experience for years, fighting each other in the following decennia to keep the Macedonian aura shining.

Also available as an e-Book.

Messene (Greece) founded by Epaminondas

The city of Messene came in the news lately as a candidate to be put on the list of World Heritage Sites of UNESCO. The name of Messene did not ring a bell with me, but its founder, Epaminondas, does.

Epaminondas founded Messene in 369 BC and, together with Pelopidas, was one of the most brilliant generals of Thebes. That happened exactly one year before later King Philip of Macedonia (the father of Alexander the Great) went to Thebes as a hostage at about thirteen years of age. He stayed at the house of General and statesman Pammenes, who was befriended by Epaminondas. Philip did not waste his time in the principal city of Boeotia, which in those days was the dominant power in Greece, and kept his eyes and ears wide open.

Epaminondas had been victorious over the Spartans at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC and is mentioned in history as the supreme master of warfare before Philip II – nothing less. Well, he was the one who applied shock tactics and combined actions by both cavalry and infantry. Pelopidas was equally talented but died in 364 during the battle in Thessaly, leaving Epaminondas in sole charge of Theban affairs. Eventually, this skilled general was killed when facing the combined forces of Athens, Sparta, Elis, and Achaea in 362 BC, by which time Philip had returned to his homeland, Macedonia. But while in Thebes, Philip would have watched how the famous and invincible Sacred Band was trained – an elite corps of three hundred Thebans. It is said that the corps was composed of 150 couples of lovers who would fight to the death, were it only to protect or save their partner. Ironically, the Band was entirely annihilated by Alexander, fighting under his father’s command in 338 BC at Chaironeia.

But Messene was the work of Epaminondas, who managed to fortify the city in 85 days, building a wall of nine kilometers long and nine meters high, strengthened by 30 guard towers. There were only two entrances, one being the Arcadia Gate to the north and the Laconia Gate to the southeast. There was enough agricultural land and an important spring (Klepsydra) inside the walls to withstand any siege – which the Spartans tried out pretty soon, of course. Messene still flourished in Hellenistic times, and the Romans made it the capital of the Messene State.

Today, Messene is one of the most important archaeological sites in the Peloponnese with nicely excavated and restored remains of many buildings like the Asclepion, the Temple of Poseidon, the Sanctuary of Demeter, and the Dioskouri, the Propylaea of the Agora, the Stadium and the Gymnasium, as well as the exceptional theatre that may have inspired even the Romans. The Arcadia Gate, next to the museum, has preserved its two square flanking towers on the outer side surrounding a circular ward of nearly 20 meters in diameter; from here, the layout of the walls can easily be followed in the landscape.

The Peloponnese, in the southern region of Greece, is generally ignored by today’s tourists and is even worse off than Macedonia. It has, however, lots of unique and impressive remains to offer to those intrepid travelers who take the time to investigate and make the effort … to be highly rewarded, not only by the many antique remains but also by the breathtaking landscape!

[Pictures from Wikipedia]

Porus, King of India by Georg Friedrich Händel

After discovering that Händel wrote an opera about Alexander (see: Alexander's Feast) I’m quite surprised to find out that he also wrote one about Porus, the King of India who was defeated by the Macedonian King at the great Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC.

Under its Italian name “Poro, Re dell’Indie” the opera was first performed in 1731 and was met with more or less success but then was generally forgotten till it was revived quite recently.

The story develops around the triangle love story borrowed from recorded history in which Queen Cleofide seeks to help Porus by pretending to be in love with Alexander the Great who is presented in Händel’s piece as a philosopher and marriage counselor. Porus’ voice was originally created for a castrato but today is taken over by a countertenor; Alexander’s role is sung by a tenor (of course, I would say!) and that of Cleofide by a soprano. It is the quality of their singing that dictates the success of the opera centered on some wonderful duets.

Quite amazing is that in this imaginary story Händel managed to express the respect Porus and Alexander showed each other in spite of pertaining to two different cultures which truly came together with them.

Bouleuterion of Assos

Assos, on the north-western coast of Turkey, is one of those places still on my list of things to see, were it only because Aristotle lived here for a while during the fourth century BC and because Plato built a second Academy here – the first being the one in Athens of course. The very idea of a Bouleuterion or Council House was born with the democracy in Athens at some point during the 5th and 6th century BC when the citizens gathered to discuss administration, politics, and business. But Assos was the first city in history to be managed by philosophers, quite noteworthy.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network]

The fact is that Aristotle, after leaving Plato’s Academy, went to Assos in 348 BC where he opened an Academy of his own. He was welcomed by King Hermias, whose adopted daughter or niece Pythias he married. Soon Aristotle was leading a group of philosophers before he moved to Lesbos three years later. When the Persians invaded Assos, torturing and killing Hermias, Aristotle sought refuge in Macedonia with his friend King Philip II. This exile eventually led to his appointment as a tutor for the king’s son, young Alexander. In 334 BC Alexander drove out the Persians from Anatolia and after his death, Assos was ruled by the kings of Pergamon till the Romans took over in 133 BC.

Based on an inscription from the end of the fourth century BC, the Bouleuterion of Assos was built by Ladomos and his wife, a leading family no doubt. Unlike other council halls which are generally entirely made of stone, the seats here in Assos were made of wood. Apparently, it was built in the wake of Alexander’s invasion of Asia Minor as the people of Assos put the doctrines of Plato into practice – making it the first Bouleuterion in Anatolia.

A closer look at Illyria

So little is known about Illyria, and so little is mentioned in history that it hardly appears on a map. Yet, it was the northwestern neighbor of Macedonia that made life difficult for Alexander and, before that, for his father, Philip II. Today, most of the northern territory is occupied by Serbia, while the south is in the hands of Albania.

[Map from Wikipedia]

The Illyrians envied the good agricultural land and lush grasslands of the Macedonian floodplains and invaded that country on a more or less regular basis. It was during such an attack in 360/359 BC by the Illyrian King Bardylis that King Perdiccas III of Macedonia was killed and, with him, 4,000 brave Macedonian soldiers. 

This incursion left the door open for further invasions, for not only could the Illyrians push all the way down to the Thermaic Gulf, but neighboring tribes like the Paeonians (in the buffer zone between Illyria and Macedonia) and the Thracians from the east could also seize this opportunity. With the death of Perdiccas III, Macedonia was exposed to more attacks by its neighbors. Besides, there was also the matter of succession to the throne since the dead king’s son, Amyntas, was still a youngster. Given all these threats, the Macedonian Assembly unexpectedly proclaimed Philip II king in 359 BC, and the people swore their oath of allegiance to him. The most urgent enemies were evidently the Illyrians, who had just defeated his brother, and it seems that King Philip II managed to sign some treaty which may have included his marriage with Audata (his second wife), King Bardylis’ granddaughter. One year later, with a stronger army, Philip was confident enough to march into Illyria and bluntly refused to accept the old King Bardylis’s terms. Consequently, both armies met near today’s Lake Ochrid, maybe close to Heraklea Lyncestis. Philip was victorious and demanded that the Illyrians pull out of Upper Macedonia all the way north to Lake Lychnitis, including the tribes of Orestis, which until then were controlled by the Molossian King of Epirus – no small achievement for a young king.

Illyria again comes into the news in 337 BC at King Philip’s wedding to Cleopatra, the niece of Attalus. Purposely or by accident, Attalus brings a toast to a lawful successor to the Macedonian throne, which implies that he looked at Alexander as a bastard. We know how insulted Alexander felt, more so when his father sided with Attalus. Alexander then leaves the court, taking his mother Olympia with him, and after placing her in the hands of her brother, the King of Epirus, he himself retires to Illyria. It is not known what he did or didn’t do there, except for spending the winter. All that is being reported is that Alexander returns to his father’s palace thanks to the diplomatic intervention of Demaratus, a mutual friend and actor.

The news of Philip’s murder in October 336 BC runs fast, and practically all his new allies start revolting. The following summer, Alexander, who meanwhile succeeded his father as king of Macedonia, marched north towards the Danube and defeated the Illyrians on his way back to subdue Thebes. Obviously, no deep ties of friendship had been forged during his earlier stay.

This long introduction brings me to recent excavations carried out at Kale-Krševica in southeastern Serbia, exposing significant remains of what appears to be a city from the late 4th/early 3rd century BC built according to the Greek model in the days of Philip and Alexander! The settlement covers an area of about five hectares and was located on an important through-road from Greece to Central Europe. Archaeology in Serbia is still in its infancy, and only about 6% of this site has been investigated so far, raising more questions than providing answers. But based on the type of architecture, the shards of pottery and amphorae, the coins and jewelry, tools, and the overall organizational system of the area, clearly establish a Greek presence that might lead to locating the city of Damastion, which is still elusive, as well as its precious silver mines mentioned by Strabo. This would, of course, boost further research. So far, it has been established that most of the settlement was located on the slopes of the hill towards the Krševica River. Several remains were uncovered, like a rampart, a larger building, undefined walls, ovens, etc.

It is interesting, however, to mention that a wide range of coins has been found with the effigy of Philip, silver drachmae showing Alexander the Great, and bronze coins of Cassander, Uranopolis, and Demetrios Poliorcetes – all of them having close ties with Macedonia in any case. On top of these specimens, one tetradrachma of early Damastion was discovered (hence the possible theory that this settlement might be the very city), and one tetradrachma of Aduleon, King of Paeonia.

Yet one of the greatest discoveries so far is the arched vault used for water storage and supply, a highly sophisticated and modern installation for its time. It shows that because of the rising water level by the end of the 4th century BC, the entire appearance and function of the original structure had to be adapted, resulting in this 10-meter-long and 6-meter-wide cistern, built from large ashlars to a height of at least six meters. The fact is that it must have held enough water for a population of several thousand. A more intensive investigation had to be abandoned, however, as archaeologists were seriously hampered by the high water table, and the cistern has been buried again pending more advanced technologies.

Well, this is just a tiny corner of Illyria that has surfaced lately. Still, it would be extremely interesting to see these excavations and others bring proof of closer contact with Macedonia from the days of King Philip II and Alexander the Great.

[Last two pictures from Kale-Krševica]