The little known oracle of Claros

It is not common knowledge that Claros ranges among the three most important oracles in antiquity, together with Delphi and Didyma.

The first cult of Claros occurred some time during the 7^th century using a round altar, which a century later, was replaced by a larger rectangular one of circa 15x6 meters. At the same time, the foundations were laid for the marble Temple of Apollo at the nearby spring, and another yet smaller temple was erected in honor of his sister, Artemis. This makes the oracle of Claros the oldest prophecy center in the ancient world.

The sanctuary remained untouched till the 4^th century BC when plans were made to enlarge it. These plans were, however, only realized in the 3rd century BC with the construction of a new Temple of Apollo and a new altar. The temple seems to be inspired by the one in Delphi having a similar crypt-like adyton where the oracle delivered her prophecies. The vaulted corridors are still visible today, although the passage is more often than not flooded by the sacred spring.

It seems the renovation works were never completed. It is astonishing to learn that only a few years ago (2006) divers found eight drums of a ten-meter-high column and its capital in Doric style in the nearby shipwreck of Kızılburun, about 60 kilometers from Claros (see: Sunken column finally delivered to the Apollo Temple in Claros). It clearly never reached its destination.

Unlike most oracles in antiquity, the diviners in Claros were men. After fasting for 24 or 48 hours, the question was whispered in the diviner's ear. He then drank some holy water, reappeared from the cave room, washed his hands and face, and formulated the question to the god Apollo. Through either inspiration or revelation, he later received the answer which he delivered to the priest in the shape of a poem. These rituals were held at night and the messages were written on tables that were erected in front of the temple for all to see. Yet, their content traveled as far as Dalmatia, Rome, Sardinia, Algeria, and even Britain and Russia! With the spread of Christianity, the oracle was gradually abandoned.

In this sanctuary, one still can read many of the ancient inscriptions on walls and steps, even on a curved marble bench. It is the largest group of such inscriptions that survived from Greek antiquity. It is also the only place providing us with a clear picture of how the priests could perform the hecatomb, i.e., a sacrifice to the gods in which as many as 100 cattle could be killed simultaneously. This ritual may have been performed at the end of the Claria Games which were held at Claros every five years in honor of Apollo (a similar ritual existed in Olympia at the closure of the Olympic Games).

Today’s visitors can still admire the remains of the Temple of Apollo with its vaulted adyton when it is not flooded. This happens generally in spring since Claros is located in the river valley and the temple itself is below the local water table. Yet, this adds to the charm of the place.

In front of the temple, archaeologists have painstakingly reassembled the fragments of three colossal sculptures, a seated Apollo holding his lyre, flanked by Leto and Artemis, standing seven meters tall. 

It seems that even Alexander the Great consulted this oracle before building the fortress on the nearby hill of Pagos where the residents from Smyrna were resettled.

The Last Will of Alexander the Great?

Alexander’s Last Will has been found? The thought alone triggers immediate widespread reactions of awe, incredibility, amazement, suspicion, curiosity, you name it!

David Grant, who has a master's degree in ancient history, has just published a book on the matter under the title “In Search of the Lost Testament of Alexander the Great”. He spent ten years and countless hours of research to reach the conclusion that Alexander’s last will was hidden in plain sight for centuries as it constitutes the last chapter (Liber de Morte?) of the Alexander Romance which is generally not taken seriously by scholars. It is indeed very difficult to sift out facts from fiction.

It will be interesting to read what David Grant has to say about this testament as found in the Romance and how he went about to conclude that those lines are trustworthy.

The Alexander Romance appeared during the 3^rd century AD and was most popular during the Middle Ages. Originally written in Greek, it has been embroidered further when it appeared in Armenian in the 5^th century and in Syriac in the 7^th century. All of these versions have been translated into many languages as The Romance circulated through Europe, Asia, and Africa, all with their own additional twists or deletions of passages.

Pending my conclusions on David Grant’s book, which I still have to read, it transpires from The Romance that Alexander – if he did indeed write this will – was very lucid and was not confused by the fever that is said to have hit him. I have questions of my own about this will, but it is pointless to develop them and I do not know what this author’s conclusions are.

To be continued, no doubt …

Hoping to find traces of Alexander at Magarsus

After Alexander recovered from his illness in Tarsus, he first marched on Soli, located a few miles west of modern Icil. He imposed a fine of 200 talents because the city supported the Persian cause. Although they were allowed to keep their own popular government, he nevertheless installed a garrison of his own. After the Battle of Issus in November 333 BC, Alexander canceled the debt of fifty talents Soli still owed, and he returned their hostages. This kindness was reciprocated to Alexander when he was laying siege to Tyre one year later, and three ships from Soli joined the reinforcement fleet of eighty Phoenician vessels and several others.

Once his business was finished at Soli, Alexander returned to Tarsus. The time had come to set his army in motion, and he marched to Magarsus, the most southerly point between the Seyhan and the Ceyhan rivers, near modern Karataş, which served as a port to Mallus. The king then moved to Mallus, a few kilometers further inland (possibly near modern Kızıltahta), and exempted the town from paying taxes because it was a colony of Argos.

This is about as much as we know of Alexander’s presence in Magarsus, where excavations were initiated as recently as 2013. The city was named after the Magarsia sisters of the Temple of Athena, founded at some date during the 5^th century BC.

[Picture from the Hurriyet Daily News]

So far, the theatre offering seating for 4,000 people has been excavated. It is 150 meters high and 30 meters wide and is turned towards the sea. Authorities hope to open the theatre soon for modern-day performances.

Next season’s excavations, which will probably start in March or April, will focus on Magarsus’ Cilician Stadium and many temples. Useless to say that I have secret hopes that some traces of Alexander the Great’s passage will also be found.

Time to visit ancient Aiani in Upper Macedonia.

Few people have ever heard of Aiani, a lovely village close to modern Kozani, once surrounded by Kastoria, Florina, Pella, Imathia, Pieria, and Larissa in Upper Macedonia. Aiani was the capital of the kingdom of Elimeia.

The ruling king in Macedonia was Perdiccas III, who had been forced to give his younger brother Philip (the father of Alexander the Great) as a hostage to Thebes. At some time during his reign (368-359 BC), Philip returned to Macedonia, and Perdiccas gave him part of his kingdom, probably not to rule in his place but merely to rule on his behalf. According to speculations, he was entrusted with the territory of Amphaxitis, a strategic stretch of land between the Axios River and the Thermaic Gulf.

In 364 BC, Philip married his first wife, Phila, the daughter of King Derdas II of Elimeia, most probably a diplomatic alliance arranged by Perdiccas as was his right as king.

But Macedonia was faced with several threats to the kingdom’s security, and in 359 BC, the Illyrians, led by King Bardylis, envious of the fertile lands in Lower Macedonia, invaded Macedonia, killing Perdiccas and with him 4,000 brave Macedonian soldiers.  

Macedonia was on the brink of collapse and facing the problem of the king’s succession to the throne since his son, Amyntas, was still a youngster. The Athenians saw an opportunity to interfere, pushing forward a certain Argaeus and the Thracians, with a certain Pausanias already marching towards the capital city of Pella. Macedonia was in dire need of a strong leader, and given all these threats, the Macedonian Assembly proclaimed Philip as king, granting him full power, which he could not have received if functioning as regent for Amyntas. Philip, they knew, had acquired serious experience in the years he ruled part of the kingdom under the wing of his brother.

In 359 BC, Philip II was elected king, and the people of Macedonia swore their oath of allegiance. It is obvious that Upper Macedonia was at the core of Philip’s expansion, and this included Elimeia. One year into his kingship, Philip managed to unite Upper and Lower Macedonia, and he achieved it probably peacefully, consolidated no doubt by his success in crushing the Illyrians.

Presently, Aiani is in the news as the restoration of the entire city nears completion, and the site is now open to the public. The excavations have revealed a well-organized town that goes back to prehistoric times and flourished during the classical and Hellenistic eras.

[Picture from The Greek Reporter]

Aiani was built on top of a high, imposing hill, meaning that all constructions were made upon successive stepped terraces. Archaeologists have exposed large portico structures belonging to public buildings, a water cistern, and several private houses spread over several levels because of the slope of the terrain. At the foot of the hill, extensive cemeteries and graves have been located, ranging from the late Bronze Age to the end of the 1st century BC. Besides the usual chamber tombs and cist graves, a heroon has also been found, confirming the presence of the highest social class. The wealth of the grave goods proves that Aiani maintained successful commercial and cultural relations with the rest of Greece. Contrary to what one thinks, Upper Macedonia certainly was not an isolated area.

The landscape, it must be said, is very different from what we find near Pella, Vergina, and Thessaloniki. This is a true high plateau swept by the wind, poor in agricultural land, and only fit for herding sheep and goats.

Until now, Aiani could only offer its precious Archaeological Museum to visit, which is a true treasure trove with, for instance, the oldest pieces of matt-painted pottery in black and white in the world. Some of the museum’s artifacts date back to the Mycenaean era, but most are from Greece’s archaic and Hellenistic times. This museum also holds some of the oldest samples of writing on archaic pottery, which confirms that the inhabitants wrote and spoke Greek well before the 5^th century BC.

It will be interesting to see this site now that it has opened to the public!

Unknown city recently “discovered” in Greece is well-known after all

Archaeology News Network published an article about recent explorations of a previously unknown ancient city in Central Greece. The work was carried out by the University of Gothenburg and they stated that nobody had explored the site before – something highly unusual in Greece to say the least.

[Aerial view of the ancient acropolis at Vlochos [Credit: VLAP]

They found remains of towers, walls and city gates at the top of a hill and the plans were to explore the underground with ground-penetrating radar instead of traditional excavations. They were able to locate the town square and several streets inside the city walls covering an area of more than 40 hectares. Thanks to the potsherds and coins that were recovered, they could date the city to at least 500 BC, although it reached its heydays in the 4^th and 3^rd century BC.

In the wake of this announcement, Archaeology News Network published an errata a few days later, confirming that the so-called lost city had already been discovered some 200 years ago. However, no in-depth examination had been carried out and the scholars are happy to learn this was a sizeable settlement in antiquity.

They apologize (rightfully so) for their earlier confusing publication, stating that the press headlines were “a bit exaggerated”.

Alexander the Great, Man and God by Ian Worthington

After reading Ian Worthington's book Philip II, King of Macedonia, I had high hopes for a book about Alexander by the same author.

Alexander the Great, Man and God by Ian Worthington (ISBN 1-405-80162-X) follows Alexander from the first day when he became king after the assassination of his father, Philip II of Macedonia, until his death in Babylon.

The author expresses a surprising and unexpected strong opinion of Alexander as he clearly is pro-Philip while here he appears as an anti-Alexander. At times I find it difficult to accept this point of view, but that is evidently a matter of opinion. Each and every historian writing about Alexander has his own appreciation and view.

For me, the most inspiring chapters are the last ones in this book, where Worthington analyses the impact of Alexander's untimely death in the then-known world and the imprint he left for posterity. The author also takes a closer look at the "Man and God" part of his title, quoting very appropriately the Indian philosophers Alexander consulted when he was in that country. "How can a man become a god?" was his question, and the answer he received was "By doing something a man cannot do." Whether this quote is true or pure propaganda is open for discussion, of course, but the subject is worth consideration. Another chapter, "Philip's Ghost", develops the role which Philip as a king played in Alexander's upbringing but more so in his life – a point that is generally overlooked by Alexander authors.

Sadly, this book does not make it to my top ten, but that does not mean it does not deserve a place on the bookshelves of the true Alexander aficionado.

Another wave of destruction hitting Palmyra

Well, by now we all have read the headlines "Isis destroyed a tetrapylon and part of a Roman theater in ancient Palmyra”. The words by themselves strike like a bomb for we thought we had had it.

Palmyra has been hit on several occasions before (see: The glorious days of Palmyra).

The first victim of this senseless destruction was the little Temple of Baal-Shamin, the god of rain and fertility on 23 August 2015. It was built around 150 AD and very well preserved because the Byzantines converted it into a church. It was a lovely spot, in the shade of a young tree that grows within its sheltering walls – all relinquished to memory.

Next, on 30 August 2015, Isis aimed at the great Temple of Bell or Baal built in the year 32 AD and the surrounding portico with 18-meters-high columns that were originally covered with gold and silver plates (see: The Temple of Bell at Palmyra – in memoriam).

Unique to this temple was its most sacred part, the naps or adyton. Following Semitic traditions, there were two such shrines one on each side. The roof of the left wing showed the seven gods and seven planets surrounded by the twelve signs of the zodiac and the niche underneath once housed the statue of the main god. A smaller statue apparently stood in the opposite southern shrine and could be carried around during the processions on heydays. Amazingly, this ceiling was cut from one single monolith stone. The entire sanctuary is now reduced to dust, including the fresco on the wall facing the entrance in between the two altars. (See also: Good news from Palmyra?)

Isis continued its demolition by blowing up seven tomb towers and on 2 September 2015, the most beautiful one and best preserved Tower Tomb of Elahbel fell.

The world was relieved to hear that Isis was retreating from Palmyra but they went in style, as a matter of speaking, blowing up Palmyra Castle on 20 March 2016. After that, it was quiet till the Arch of Septimius Severus was destroyed in October of that same year.

After all these saddening events of barbaric destruction, we thought and hoped peace was restored. Isis had left and archaeologists worldwide came to assess the damage. The only buildings standing were the Roman Theater, the wall of the Agora and the Great Colonnade Street with its elegant Tetrapylon. We counted our blessings but apparently, nobody saw yesterday’s destruction coming.

We write 20 January 2017 and the magnificent Tetrapylon, a group of four times four columns at one of the Decumanus’ crossroads has been blown to pieces. Only one of the sixteen pink granite columns was original, imported all the way from Aswan in Egypt, and the other columns were meticulously reconstructed. This Tetrapylon sadly no longer highlights its key position at the bend in the Great Colonnade Street.

At the same time, the magnificently preserved stage wall of the 2,000 years old Roman Theatre has been blown up.

This latest war crime and loss for the Syrian people and humanity seems to have taken place ten days before the news was released as authorities wanted to verify the information through satellite images provided by the researchers from Boston University. Well, we have the pictures to prove it.

[Picture from The Guardian]

I fear that much of the 1200-meters-long Great Colonnade Street or Decumanus has been heavily hit by the repeated explosions. With its porticoes and sidewalks, this Decumanus was exceptionally wide and measured nothing less than 23 meters!

It is terrible to be so helpless in trying to protect and save a civilization. Khaled al-Asaad, Syria’s leading archaeologist paid for it with his life. The director general of UNESCO has summarized this situation very well “This new blow against cultural heritage … shows that cultural cleansing led by violent extremists is seeking to destroy both human lives and historical monuments in order to deprive the Syrian people of its past and its future”. (Text quoted by The Guardian).

For those who want to have an idea of what Palmyra looked like before Isis murdered the city, please visit this link or my album on Pinterest.

What the Stadiasmus Patarensis in Patara is about

The Stadiasmus Patarensis is maybe better known as the Miliarium Lyciae, a Roman milestone that was found, as the name indicates, at Patara in ancient Lycia.

The monument has the shape of a pillar. It is of particular interest because it provides a roadmap of Lycia, listing no less than 63 roads with the distances between the fifty cities mentioned. Interestingly, one-third of these 63 roads have been uncovered so far; another five roads were located during excavations in eastern Lycia, and ten more in central Lycia. At present, archaeologists are investigating western Lycia near Fethiye and Seydikemer and have discovered six more roads.

There is still a lot of work to be carried out, and researchers hope that eventually, they’ll be able to map the entire transportation infrastructure of Lycia, together with its administrative system in Roman times.

Back in 1994, they discovered loose blocks of this Stadiasmus Patarensis, and when they put them together, it resulted in a seven-meter-high monument carrying Greek inscriptions on three sides. The central face contains a dedication from 46 AD to Emperor Claudius. The side faces show an official list of roads built by Quintus Veranius, the first Roman governor of Lycia. Since the main face with the emperor’s dedication does not refer in any way to the roadmaps, scholars assume that the side panels are from a slightly later date.

Its initial purpose was to show the power of the Romans in Lycia and Patara, as its capital was the right place to erect this monument. The inscription on the central panel describes the Lycians as loving Rome and Caesar, having restored “concord, equality before the law, and ancestral laws".

The above clip shows the reconstructed pillar from all sides and a fully restored view of the inscription. This precious milestone is on display in the gardens of the Museum of Antalya. 

The Lycian Way by Kate Clow

The Lycian Way by Kate Clow (ISBN 0-9539218-2-4) is the best walking guide you can find to navigate the 530 kilometers long route throughout Lycia in southern Turkey.

The Lycian Way follows ancient Greek and Roman roads as well as traditional nomad trails and forest tracks, which are linked up to form a continuous walking route. The walker will travel at the pace of the farmers and goat herders who roamed through Lycia for eons. Since it once was one of the richest and most densely populated areas, signs of ancient civilizations are plentiful. Because of its rugged landscape, the area has not been spoiled by modern hotels and other facilities.

This book simply provides you with all the information you need, whether you travel solo or with a group, whether you are interested in history, botany, wildlife, geology or simply want to enjoy the quietness of nature.

The route is always clearly marked with white and red stripes on rocks or trees and sign-posted in green and yellow where it leaves the asphalted road. An excellent detachable map is included giving full details about the elevation, the terrain to cross, pertinent points of reference and the water points and cisterns. GPS Data can also be downloaded from their website which is regularly updated.

An entire chapter is devoted to what to bring and what to wear, followed by one centered around traveling in Turkey, shopping and first aid and rescue. If you read these carefully, you are fully prepared to start walking through this magnificent region. The book even contains hints about what to look out for if you are not acquainted with recognizing remnants of antique cities like theaters, temples, city walls and necropolises.

The Lycian Way by Kate Clow is to be your travel companion. You can start your walk at any point and stop wherever you like. For each stretch of the route, the book provides full information about shops and water availability, lodging possibilities, the length of the walk and the time it will take you, with in between key points you’ll have to cross-check on the way – keep your eyes peeled and you most certainly will get there.

For those who truly fall in love with Lycia (as I did) the book also provides a rather complete and very comprehensive history of the region as well as a handy list of Turkish vocabulary for trekkers.

Two key afterthoughts on Gaugamela

The Battle of Gaugamela is generally seen as an overall victory for Alexander and that is what has been recorded in history. Yet, there are two factors or rather personages that call for some serious afterthoughts.

The first is about King Darius III who turned his chariot around and left the scene before the battle was over. In the thick swirling cloud of dust and heavy fighting, it makes me wonder how soon Alexander noticed Darius’ retreat. There may have been a sudden opening in the Persian lines when the Ten Thousand Immortals and Darius’ personal retinue pulled out to escort their king in their sworn duty to protect him. In any case, Darius was the whole reason for the battle to take place and Alexander was not going to give up at this stage. He cannot have been aware of the overall situation on the battlefield as every soldier simply fought the enemy that appeared in front of him in the obscuring dust, but the Macedonians were well drilled and extremely disciplined. They knew what Alexander expected of them and performed to excellence as against all odds, they were able to keep their overall frontline intact – amazing when you consider they were outnumbered six to one.

As soon as he knew that Darius had left the battlefield, Alexander dashed in his pursuit with about 2,000 cavalry. Some claim that he abandoned his army for the sole scope of capturing Darius, but his generals had their instructions and would further fulfill their duty without hesitation. Alexander knew that he could rely on them as he also knew that he needed to capture Darius if he ever wanted to be King of Asia.

Alexander’s pursuit was not without danger or obstacles. Let’s not forget that he was not alone heading in the general direction of Babylon. In fact, he had to thrust through the cloud of dust created by the masses of Persian cavalry on the run who, still faithful to their king tried to stop Alexander and his men. The ensuing fighting was particularly savage and it is known that at least sixty of Alexander’s companions were wounded, including Hephaistion. By the time Alexander shook off the enemy cavalry, Darius had gained a decent head start and had crossed the Great Zab River where he exchanged his chariot for a horse. He soon reached the Royal Road near Arbela, one of the main intersections in the Persian road system. By the time Alexander passed the Great Zab River darkness started to fall and it was obvious that he couldn’t catch up with Darius that day. He decided to get some rest and allow the horses a well-deserved breather.

By midnight he was in the saddle again and reached Arbela in the early morning hours. Here he learned that Darius had taken a sizeable head start, taking a shortcut through the hills. His trail led through the Kurdish mountains with 3,000 meter-high passes where Alexander would be in unchartered terrain and prey to a hostile enemy. He was realistic enough to know that he had to give up his chase. It is clear that he was very disappointed but at the same time, he realized that his first priority now was to take possession of Babylon. The capture of Darius had to wait.

The second case is about Mazaeus, the commander of Darius’ cavalry who fought on his right wing opposite Parmenion.

Records of the Battle of Gaugamela are obviously concentrating on Alexander and only scattered information transpires about what happened on his left wing, except the tale that Parmenion sent a message to Alexander for extra support. This message is a very questionable one and even in antiquity authors do not agree on the details. What is fact and what is fiction? Besides, it seems near impossible to anyone to find Alexander in the commotion and heavy dust bowl on the battlefield. But that is another subject of discussion.

Yet, we do have a contemporary version of the facts recorded in the so-called Babylonian astronomical diaries. One of those cuneiform tablets has been deciphered at the British Museum in London and although it is damaged the text contains the omens and foretells the outcome of the battle. (The full text of these clay tablets has been reproduced in detail on Livius’ site together with a more scholarly report also on this Livius’ site.) Through the fragments, it transpires that some high-ranking officers, including Mazaeus, deserted Darius with a number of men from Battle of Gaugamela. The text says that “the troops of the king deserted him” which could mean that these Persians either joined Alexander and fought on his side, or that they simply refused to fight. This theory of troops deserting King Darius raises speculations that Alexander possibly bribed his Persian enemy – a process that was not at all uncommon in antiquity. Maybe the scheme had been planned on the banks of the Euphrates three months earlier?

When Hephaistion was building his two bridges over the Euphrates, Mazaeus observed the works from the opposite side of the river. Both men faced each other for several days as Hephaistion did not risk finishing his bridges fearing that Mazaeus would immediately destroy them. This game of cat and mouse ended when Alexander in person appeared with the bulk of his troops. At this point, Mazaeus and his 2,000 Greek mercenaries turned around and proceeded to scorch more earth in front of the enemy’s advance as ordered by Darius. It is pure speculation but not impossible that Hephaistion and Mazaeus exchanged messages (Mazaeus having been satrap of Cilicia did speak Greek) while troops on both sides (all Greeks) shouted back and forth over the water.

The fact remains that as soon as Mazaeus saw Darius riding away from the battlefield at Gaugamela, he hurried to Babylon. When Alexander arrived there some three weeks later, he was welcomed in appropriate style by Mazaeus and other Persian noblemen.

In the end, I guess we’ll never know the entire story, neither about Darius’ reason to flee nor about the role played by Mazaeus who, let’s not forget, was Alexander’s first Persian to be appointed as governor in one of his conquered cities.

Interestingly, among the clay tablets, there is another fragment that seems to be a part of Alexander’s address to the people of Babylon, in which he reassures them that he will not “go into their houses”. This corresponds to known Greek sources mentioning that the Macedonians were not allowed to loot Babylon when they entered the city after their victory at Gaugamela.

[Pictures from Oliver Stone's movie Alexander]