Bringing the Doryphoros home

Thanks to the many copies the Romans made of original Greek sculptures, the initial artist of most works can be traced back. It is the case of the unique marble Doryphoros by Polycleitus, created in bronze around 440 BC. The bronze original was a little larger than life-size. 

[Picture from the Archaeology News Network]

The best-preserved copy of a Doryphoros or Spear Bearer was retrieved from the volcanic ashes of Vesuvius in the buried city of Stabiae on the Gulf of Naples. The Roman copy was created between 27 BC and 68 AD, shortly before the eruption of 79 AD. It was looted in the 1970s and ended up in Minneapolis' Institute of Arts. 

Investigations led to the reconstruction of the trail, followed by this important artifact after being stolen from Castellammare. This occurred between the end of 1975 and the beginning of 1976. 

The looters sold the statue to an antique dealer in Basel, Switzerland. From there, it made its way to the USA and hence to Germany. It was exhibited at the Glyptothek of the Antikenmuseum in Munich for several years, labeled as "Doryphoros aus Stabia." When identified by the Italia investigators in 1984, it was seized by the Naples Public Prosecutor. However, a year later, it was released and disappeared again to be sold in 1985 to the MIA in Minneapolis.  

It makes one wonder how it is still possible to drag around illegal antiquities without being detected, especially in the present case of a full-sized statue! 

The mayor of Stabia is asking to bring the Doryphoros back home to the Archaeological Museum Libero D'Orsi. The Italian authorities introduced a new official request to Minneapolis to return the Doryphoros to Italy. A close-up study followed to establish that this was indeed Stabia's stolen statue, which initially had a damaged arm, a missing finger, and a missing right foot. 

The Doryphoros stands out because of the perfection of its proportions, as Polycleitus is the first artist to establish the absolutely balanced and harmonious dimensions of the human body in his sculptures. He described its mathematical proportions in a lost treatise, the Canon of Polycleitus. His attitude was called contrapposto, in which the body's weight rested on one leg, and the other leg relaxed. Apparently, the sculptor has created 1500 works, none of which have survived. 

Polycleitus' search for perfection fits entirely with the typical mentality of the Greeks in his time, in which artists, intellectuals, and statesmen strived for excellence. This idea lived on long afterward since it was still practiced by Alexander and his contemporaries. 

With Phidias and Praxiteles, Polycleitus is considered one of the most important sculptors of the Classical Greek era. So significant was his influence that later artists like Skopas and Lysippos (Alexander's personal sculptor) worked using the same references.

[Bottom picture from Positano News]

Link to Philip’s presence in Bulgaria

Little is known about Philip’s conquest of the land of the Getae in his early campaigns to stabilize Macedonia after the death of his elder brother, King Perdiccas III, in 359 BC. 

Perdiccas was killed in a battle against the invading Illyrians, after which Macedonia faced several threats to the kingdom’s security. There was also the matter of succession to the throne since the dead king’s son, Amyntas, was still a youngster. The Athenians tried to interfere, pushing forward a certain Argaeus and the Thracians, Pausanias who already marched towards the capital city of Pella. Given all these threats, the Macedonian Assembly unexpectedly proclaimed Philip as King, and the people swore their oath of allegiance to him. 

It was a lengthy and challenging assignment for the young Philip. The most urgent threat came from the Illyrians, who had just defeated his brother. He managed some treaties which may have included his marriage with Audata, King Bardylis’ granddaughter. 

He then turned towards the Paeonians, whom he corrupted with gifts and generous promises to reach a peace agreement. Athens with Argaeus was another serious problem, and Philip tricked them into believing he was giving up any claim on Amphipolis by withdrawing his Macedonian soldiers. The Athenians took the bait and eventually signed another peace treaty. 

Macedonia suffered from relentless attacks on all sides, but within a year, Philip managed to end the four major threats that had led to his accession to the throne. The lightning speed of his actions paid off. Although peace was never long-lived, Philip cleverly manipulated his opponents using diplomacy, deceit, bribery, and political marriages. 

In 342/341 BC (see: Macedonia forged by Philip II – part 11), Philip successfully dislodged the Thracians in the east, occupying the cities along the Hellespont - a very sensitive area as he needed to control this inland route. Later that year, he turned northwards against the people who lived between Thracia and the Danube Valley. Their King Cothelas was quick to surrender, giving his daughter, Meda, in marriage to Philip to become his sixth wife (see: The Many Wives of Philip II). 

Recent excavations have located the tomb of Cothelas in northeastern Bulgaria, near the modern village of Sveshtari, roughly 400 km from the capital, Sofia. Although references to the Thracian king remain vague, the largest tomb in that burial complex may very well be his. Archaeologists have unearthed precious gold gifts, including 44 applications of female figures, 100 golden buttons, and a golden ring. The piece de resistance is a tiara with animal motifs and a horse headpiece. Altogether, the site counts about 150 tombs all belonging to the Thracian tribe, the Getae. 

Let’s hope that further excavations will reveal more about these Thracians, of which much remains shrouded in mystery.

[Pictures from Daily Mail]

An example of the heavy traffic in the Mediterranean

Recent underwater explorations of the Bay of Fethiye, ancient Telmessus, led to discovering a heap of amphorae of the Rhodian type. 

[Picture from Daily Sabag]

The shipwreck was found at a depth of 28 meters and only 20 meters from the shore. The remains of amphorae indicated the place of the wreck that occurred in the 3rd century AD. This dating was based on the shape of the amphorae whose spur-handles are typical for the last type produced in Rhodes. It has been labeled as the latest example from the Roman era. 

At that time, Rhodes was a major harbor and entertained intense trade relations with other cities around the Mediterranean and Asia Minor in particular. 

It has been estimated that this merchant ship, of which nothing remains, was between 20 and 30 meters long, and it probably sank during a storm. 

It is known that storms are the primary cause for ships to run aground. So far, approximately 40 shipwrecks from antiquity have been identified in the Turkish waters.

More antiquities in blasting color

Since the first-ever exhibition of ancient statues reworked to their ancient polychromy in 2003 (see: Ancient Greece in full Technicolor), the concept of looking at colored versions has become more familiar. Many 3D and other reconstructions of temples and monuments have been published in its wake. 

It is almost unbelievable that the idea of looking at white marble or stone temples has been anchored in our minds for so long. That is not entirely surprising as some early archaeologists used to scrub their finds clean to remove the dirt, including any possible trace of color. Earlier archaeologists of the 1800s, like Sir Charles Fellows, have repeatedly exposed tombs and smaller temples with explicit paint remains, either in their decoration or in the inscriptions' letters. 

I remember strolling through the site of Arykanda, for instance (see: Visiting the site), and staring at the stately tombs in its necropolis, which Charles Fellows described with many traces of paint. I stared and stared but saw nothing except in my imagination. 

The statues' bright colors are shocking at first because they are so strong (see: Greek statues in blasting colors). Besides, some parts may have been gilded and have in-laid eyes as first appearing in bronze statues. Modern technologies using ultraviolet and infrared light reveal any faint remains of color. 

In my earlier blogs mentioned above, I mainly concentrated on marble statues and missed to stress the exceptional beauty of reconstructed bronze statues. Striking examples are the two Riace bronzes hauled from the sea in 1972. After they were cleaned, many details became visible. Their mouths appeared to be made from copper, as were their eyelashes and nipples. Warrior A showed silver teeth. And, of course, both statues had kept their eyes inlaid with stone. 

They are very striking and charming in their bright colors, but the detail of the head I found by chance is even more revealing! Although this was common good in the temples and houses in antiquity, these pictures look spectacular because we only have isolated examples.

[Pictures from Atlas Obscura]

Traces of Alexander in Pakistan?

Archaeological news from Pakistan only reaches us sparingly. As a result, the remote Swat Valley remains as hidden to us as it was in the days of Sir Aurel Stein and even Alexander! 

[The Battlefield of Alexander. Picture from Shafeeq Gigyani]

That does not mean that the northwestern corner of Pakistan was totally isolated in antiquity. Approximately 150 Buddhist heritage sites have been counted so far. The Buddhist monastery in Barikot (Bazira in antiquity) from the 1st century AD was the latest (see: Old Buddhist complex discovered in Pakistan). 

Alexander certainly crossed the Swat Valley, which was then part of India. The spectacular hoard of coins retrieved from a well at Mir Zakah is there to prove his presence (see: Alexander’s real face). 

More recent excavations high on a hill overlooking the Swat Valley revealed an ancient cemetery. Pending Carbon dating, archaeologists suggest that this was the burial site of the Dardic people who lived here between 1000 and 500 BC. As many as 32 sealed graves were discovered, shedding light upon the burial rituals of this community. It appears that the graves were used for more than one generation, adding the dead to the existing burial site. Typically, the graves contained two skeletons, one male and one female, facing each other. 

In 327 BC, Alexander marched through the Swat Valley and the village of Udegram or Odigram. In antiquity this was the large city of Ora, surrounded by defensive walls running up the slopes of the high mountain. It is roughly located between Swat and Barikot. This is the area populated by the Assacenians who sought refuge on the Aornos Rock. 

[Picture from Livius]

Amazingly enough, none of the graves contained any weapons. Archaeologists discovered, however, hairpins, some pieces of iron, beautiful pots, and a variety of ornaments executed in copper and in bronze. 

Most of the excavations in the Swat Valley are centered on Barikot, although the cemetery of Udegram holds important treasures of its own. As always, the main concern is to find enough money and the right expertise to proceed further.

What do we know about Arrian of Nicomedia?

Although Arrian is quoted repeatedly by many historians, ancient and modern alike, we don’t know precisely when he was born or died. He lived during the reign of two great emperors, Trajan and Hadrian when the Roman Empire experienced its most remarkable expansion.

He was a versatile man and prolific writer, but he was a historian most of all. How he found the time to pen down his many books besides pursuing a military career, holding public offices, and becoming a famous philosopher is commendable. 

Arrian, whose full name was Lucius Flavius Arrianus, was born in Nicomedia (modern Izmit, Turkey), a province of Bithynia ruled by Rome. Consequently, he probably was a Roman citizen. He grew up in an aristocratic family, was well-educated, and held the post of governor of Cappadocia from approximately 131 until 137 AD. Since the culture in Asia Minor was still very Greek, he grew up with this dual identity making him a true Graeco-Roman. 

Arrian was the perfect person to write about Alexander the Great having such a background. With his upbringing in Nicomedia, he realized that Alexander left behind so much Greek culture (he didn’t use the word Hellenistic!) He absorbed it all, even though he looked at it from a Roman perspective several centuries later. 

As a young man, c.108 AD, he moved to Nicopolis, Greece (earlier in Epirus), to stay with Epictetus. Epictetus considered philosophy a way of life, meaning that whatever happened was beyond our control, and we should accept events as they unfolded. His main philosophy was self-knowledge, similar to the Delphic maxim, know thyself. These wise words were visible in the pronaos of the Temple of Apollo in Delphi and were spread by Aeschylus, Socrates, and Plato. It is unknown whether Epictetus based his thoughts on this inscription, as no writings from his hand have survived. It was Arrian who wrote down Epictetus’ lectures in his Discourses of Epictetus and Enchiridion. 

The philosopher considerably influenced Arrian’s education and introduced him to important political people. The most notable figure probably was the later Emperor Hadrian – himself a pupil of Epictetus - whom he befriended in 126 AD. Hadrian appointed Arrian to the Roman Senate around 130 AD and promoted him to the governor of Cappadocia about a year later. During his governorate, he successfully stopped the invasion of the Alani in 135 AD. This was when Arrian documented his victory by writing his Ectaxis contra Alanos (Order of Battle against the Alans), which provides us with a unique insight into the Roman army in action that still bore “the stamp of Macedon.” Aware of the difference between the Macedonian and Roman phalanx, Arrian drew parallels between them. He underscored that the phalanx was not something of the past but still an active weapon in the contemporary military. His military career took him to many countries away from his native Bithynia, where he saw very different animals and plants from his familiar homeland. 

Arrian’s military career probably started earlier as he led an army to the Caspian Gates during Emperor Trajan's rule (98-117 AD). As governor of Cappadocia, Arrian commanded two Roman legions, which was when he wrote his Ars Tactica (The Tactical Arts). Experiencing the strategies and maneuvers firsthand, he described cavalry tactics and praised military innovations. In both Ectasis and Tactica, he mixed Greek and Roman military theories.

Arrian has a great interest in geography and a keen eye for details. Under Hadrian, he wrote the Periplus of the Euxine Sea (Sailing around the Black Sea) to inform the emperor about the region he considered exploring. Besides helpful information about ports, rivers, and cities, he included specific details about the viability and the landscapes. In his Cynegeticus, which is an addition to Xenophon’s work, he stated, for instance, that Mysia (northwest Turkey), Dacia (mainly all of present Romania), Scythia, and Illyricum (the greater Balkans) had plains that were “adapted for riding.” 

Clearly, our historian started writing at a very young age. However, many of his works are lost or only survived fragmentary, leaving us with titles alone. Besides the titles already mentioned above, he wrote:

- Biographies like Lives of Dion, Timoleon, and Tillorobus

- several volumes dedicated to his homeland, the Bithyniaca

- a history of the Parthians, the Parthica

- a history of the Alans, Historia Alanica

- an essay on maneuvers, On Infantry Exercises

- an essay about astronomy, On Nature, Composition, and Appearances of Comets

- And, most interestingly, a volume focusing on the events after the death of Alexander, The History of the Successors – sadly lost to humanity forever! Imagine the twists history could take if we had this book!

When or where exactly Arrian wrote his famous Anabasis or The History of the Wars and Conquests of Alexander the Great remains obscure. It is generally accepted as his most outstanding work, together with the Indica addendum about India. With these two books, Arrian is, to this day, our most precious and reliable source about Alexander. The historian could project his own military experiences and campaigns into his vision of Alexander. Arrian also had a profound fascination with Persia and Persian customs, which he lavishly shares in his Anabasis. 

Notably, he could rely on several sources, from first-rank witnesses to Alexander’s campaigns. These were generals and close Companions who had access to Alexander’s Royal Journal – men like Ptolemy, Nearchus, and Megasthenes. Another precious source was Eratosthenes, a librarian at the rich Library of Alexandria. Aristobulus also served under Alexander and later wrote a history of Alexander, including careful observations on geography, ethnography, and natural science. Aristobulus’ notes about which plants grew in specific regions of the lands Alexander conquered were vital because it gives us a glimpse of Alexander’s knowledge of plants and animals based on Aristotle’s lessons. 

It is still being determined what happened to Arrian at the end of his governorship in Cappadocia in 137 AD. Still enjoying the favors of Hadrian, he most probably became governor of Syria between 135 and 150 AD.

Towards the end of his life, he moved to Athens, where he became archon probably in 145 or 146 AD. Other sources, however, state that Arrian retired to Nicomedia, where he was appointed priest to Demeter and Persephone. 

Arrian died some time during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, 121-180 AD, who was the last of the so-called good emperors. 

Witnessing how meticulous and objective Arrian proceeds in his Anabasis to describe Alexander’s campaigns, not only the sieges and the battlefields but also the geography and the nature and habits of the people, it is easy to realize how much information is lost in his other works.

Linking the Pantheon in Rome with ancient Mausoleums

The Pantheon in Rome is recognized as the best-preserved Roman construction in the world. This statement, however, brings me back to Alexander and his Mausoleum in Alexandria, as discussed in my earlier blog, Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander. 

I explained how Alexander’s tomb inspired later kings and rulers to build their own Mausoleum. The same circular shape was declined in different ways, as described in said blog. However, the Pantheon in Rome used very distinct raw materials for its construction that were not available in the days of the Ptolemies when Alexander’s tomb was erected.  

The surviving Pantheon still makes a statement today, and its cupola resting on top of a circular supporting wall has puzzled architects and archaeologists for centuries. Today’s thorough analysis has shed new light on this monument. 

A temple-like front counting 16 monolith Corinthian columns gives access to the Pantheon proper with a diameter of 43.3 meters. The inscription on the front of the temple portico reading that Agrippa, the right arm of Augustus, built this Pantheon is misleading. Recent research has established that Augustus himself ordered the construction of the earliest Pantheon in 27 BC, which had a slightly wider façade. It faced his Mausoleum less than one kilometer away, built one year earlier, in 28 BC. It is noteworthy to keep in mind that both monuments stood outside the ancient city. 

This first Pantheon, dedicated to all the gods, was destroyed in the fire of Rome in 80 AD. Domitian rebuilt it soon enough, but it was burnt again in 110 AD. By that time, both Augustus and Agrippa were long dead. No reason – yet - to put Agrippa’s name on the façade. 

About ten years later, Hadrian built a new Pantheon on top of the charred remains of the previous versions. His building was made to last, and it did. The circular wall is six meters thick and robust enough to support the copula, 40 meters above the ground. The oculus, the opening at the center of the cupola, has a diameter of 8.70 meters. This opening, together with the rows of alcoves inside this cupola, helps to reduce its enormous weight. 

Examining the thin bricks covering the inside and outside concrete walls of the rotunda, scholars discovered that most were stamped with the name of Emperor Hadrian. The cement inside this 6-meter-thick wall is of a unique mix, using lava dust and fine lava gravel. This mixture was so strong that it was used henceforward all over the Roman Empire for the aqueducts, bridges, and other monumental buildings. As an extra, this cement was also waterproof and fireproof. Looking at the outside walls, one will notice many arches incorporated in its design, and their role was to reinforce the walls even further. 

This close examination of the Pantheon leads to further investigation of Hadrian's many monuments. The first visit goes to the Villa Hadriana in Tivoli, just outside Rome. The construction of this villa, which covered an area larger than Pompeii, probably started around 120 AD. It counted at least one thousand rooms and had an underground parking space for his chariots. A closer inspection revealed that the circular building on the central island, which is said to be the personal quarters of Hadrian, has the same diameter as the Pantheon. Speaking of megalomania! 

It transpires that Hadrian was not much loved by the Romans, although he was widely venerated elsewhere in the Empire. Trying to impose himself, he used Agrippa as a publicity stunt on the front of the Pantheon. In his days, 126 AD, the rotunda functioned as a court building. We’ll remember that Hadrian started the construction of his Mausoleum, the later Castel Sant’Angelo, in 130 BC (see: Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander). 

Stepping inside the Pantheon, any modern visitor will stop staring in awe at the oculus above their heads. Inevitably, the rain would fall onto the colorful marble floor. This floor was slightly tilted to drain the water through small apertures in the marble slabs and washed away in underground canals. By sunny weather, on the other hand, the light beam would illuminate the niches that once held statues and highlight parts of the marble floor. Hadrian had his statue in a prominent place inside the Pantheon. On April 24, the anniversary of the foundation of Rome, the sun would cover Emperor Hadrian with its godly rays. 

In 609 AD, the Pantheon was converted into a Christian Church dedicated to the Virgin Mary and all the Martyr Saints. This saved the precious building for posterity. In later centuries, it served as a model for the Basilica of the Vatican, Italy; the Panthéon in Paris, France; the Rotunda of the University of Virginia, USA; and many other public buildings all over the world. 

The Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki

Fitting the same list of circular buildings is the Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki, which is still standing. Emperor Galerius built it in 306 AD as his Mausoleum, although it may have served as a Mausoleum for Constantine the Great, who died in 337. Soon after, it became a Christian Church dedicated to the Archangels. After the Ottoman invasion in 1590, Thessaloniki’s church cathedral became a mosque until they were ousted in 1912. This Rotunda is a recognizable copy of the Pantheon in Rome, although smaller. Its height nearly reaches 30 meters to the top of the dome, and the circle measures 24.5 meters in diameter. The dome, which initially had an oculus, is resting on walls that are 6.3 meters thick and built similarly to its example in Rome. The construction is made of bricks that were covered with marble slabs on the outside. However, the interior walls were decorated with early Byzantine mosaics in the 4th-6th century.

Although we have no hard proof that all these Pantheons and Mausoleums arose in the wake of Alexander’s now-lost tomb in Alexandria, the very idea remains very tempting. It is doubtful that Alexander conceived his tomb at any time, neither when he was in Alexandria nor in Babylon. The city of Alexandria was still under construction when the king died, which was why his body was temporarily placed in a tomb in Memphis. Ptolemy I or his son Philadelphus brought Alexander’s golden sarcophagus to his burial site in Alexandria, approximately between 298 and 274 BC. 

Amazingly, no description at all has survived about its exact location. The same mystery surrounds the king’s second grand burial site after Ptolemy IV Philopator had completed the construction of the imposing new Royal Mausoleum. Alexander’s body was moved sometime during his reign, between 221 and 204 BC, and was placed amidst the remains of other members of the Ptolemy dynasty. This necropolis with the Alexander Mausoleum was located somewhere in the middle of the city. Ancient testimonies remain very vague on the subject, and since most of the initial Alexandria lies four or five meters under the modern metropolis, it will not reappear soon.

In any case, the Mausoleum of Alexander existed from the third century BC till after the reign of Emperor Hadrian, who died in 138 AD. Crowds of people paid tribute to Alexander over the centuries and yet his tomb could not be located!

[Picture 1 from Tiqets.com - Picture 2 from Wikimedia - Picture 3 from Wikipedia - Picture 4 is mine - Picture 5 from Tiqets.com]