Zopyrion, governor of Thracia in Macedonian service

Thracia had been annexed by Philip II in his efforts to extend the power of the Macedonian kingdom and to safeguard its borders. After his death, Alexander had to stamp his authority and his rule over the many tribes once again all the way to the mighty Danube River to protect his back before setting out to Asia. 

One would expect the northern tribes to live on happily ever after, especially since Alexander took a substantial contingent of Thracians with him as far as India and back under the command of their general Sitalces (see: Sitalces, commander of the Thracians). 

However, the many Thracian tribes never united and kept fighting among themselves putting their individual interests above all. It was one of Antipater’s tasks, as Regent of Macedonia, to enforce the peace. 

[Helmet from Zopyrion's army, found in Olanesti, Moldova]

Ancient historians have left us very little information about what happened in Alexander’s homeland while he moved further east. One governor of Thrace is known as Zopyrion. His name caught my attention after seeing the picture of a helmet found in Olanesti, Moldova that is linked to Zopyrion’s army. 

Unfortunately, the only reliable source of Zopyrion comes from Curtius. He simply stated that the governor made an expedition against the Getae and that his army was overwhelmed by sudden tempests and gales. He allegedly lost 30,000 men - a figure that is probably exaggerated. At that time, about 324 BC, Alexander was in Persia facing the misconduct of many satraps he had left in charge before moving on to Central Asia. 

However, another much less trustworthy story is told by Justin. This one circulates widely on the internet, mostly repeating the content of the Wikipedia page. 

Justin, in full Marcus Junianus Justinus, probably lived in the 2nd/3rd century AD and got a hold of the 44 books called the Philippic Histories by Pompeius Trogus that are now lost. Justin decided that Trogus’ history was far too voluminous and he wrote his own abridged version. Sadly, accuracy was not Justin’s strong point and he was not very concerned about his sources or the chronology of the events already a weak point in Trogus’ account. 

As a result, the vivid description found on Wikipedia and the like is fraud with pitfalls. Here, Zopyrion is said to have assembled an army of 30,000 men. He started his march along the southern banks of the Black Sea and laid siege on Olbia, a colony of Miletus. At that time, Miletus was already incorporated into Alexander’s Empire but Olbia was not. Left on its own, the city managed to survive the siege by granting freedom to its slave population and citizenship to the foreigners living there. An alliance with the Scythians counteracted Zopyrion’s ambition even further, and he ran out of resources. At this point, he ended his siege of Olbia and started to retreat. At the same time, his navy apparently was hit by a severe storm devastating his fleet. In Justin’s account, Zopyrion’s campaign was short-lived and he died with his troops at the end of 331 BC. He also reports that Antipater as regent of Macedonia, conveyed the news to Alexander in a letter that also informed him that his uncle and brother-in-law Alexander of Epirus, was killed in Italy. 

While it is correct that Alexander of Epirus was killed in Italy in 331 BC, the ambitious campaign of Zopyrion took place seven years later, in 324 BC. In the end, the details based on Justin’s account may contain some truth but it is hard to filter them out. 

The Periplus of the Euxine Sea by Arrian – Part 2

The second part of the Periplus covers the section From the Thracian Bosporus to Trapezus. 

As mentioned earlier in About Arrian’s Periplus of the Euxine Sea, it could not be established whether this chapter reflects Arrian's personal experience or not. One theory is that he wrote it upon arrival in Trapezus after Hadrian appointed him governor of Cappadocia in 131 AD. 

We should also keep in mind that Arrian was a native of Bithynia that bordered the south shores of the Black Sea over approximately one-third of its total length. Consequently, he knew the people and the geography of that area very well. As an admirer of Xenophon, he was familiar with the route followed by the Ten Thousand as they marched from Trapezus to Byzantium following the seashore.

[Bust of Xenophon, Carole Raddato (CC BY-NC-SA)]

Whatever the case, this section of the Periplus includes an impressive list of the harbors and rivers on the southern shore of the Black Sea among which are the cities of Herakleia-Pontus founded by the Megarians and the Boeotians at the mouth of the Lycus River; Tios, at the mouth of the Billaeus River and a colony of Miletus; Amastris (modern Amasra) that had a harbor 17 kilometers from the River Parthenius; Sinope, another colony of Miletus and home of Diogenes; Amisus, an Athenian colony between the Halys and the Iris River deltas; and, finally, Cotyora, a colony of Sinope. 

Ever since the days of the Hittite Empire which reached its height in the 14^th century BC, the Halys River was the border between several kingdoms; first between Lydia and the Persian Empire, then between the Pontic Kingdom and the Kingdom of Cappadocia. By the 6^th century BC it separated Lydia from Media until King Croesus crossed the river to attack Cyrus the Great and was defeated. 

[From the Greek Reporter]

It is worth mentioning that a 1.50-meter-tall statue of Aphrodite has been discovered recently in ancient Amastris. It could be established that it is a Roman copy from between 180 and 200 AD that was inspired by Praxiteles’ school in the 4th century BC. The ancient city was named after Amastris, the niece of King Darius III who married Dionysos, the tyrant of Herakleia-Pontus.

The map included in my post About Arrian’s Periplus of the Euxine Sea is most useful for locating all the cities, harbors, and rivers mentioned above. 

It should be said that while inspecting the Cappadocian frontier harbors in 123 AD, Emperor Hadrian had already visited part of the southern Euxine Sea, including Trapezus. With this in mind, Arrian now informed the emperor that Trapezus was building a new harbor replacing the mooring where ships could only anchor in summer. 

It is quite amazing to see so much geography and history being exchanged. We tend to forget the many lines of communication that existed in antiquity with traders, merchants, scholars, philosophers, astronomers, kings, and emperors traveling far and wide, by land and by sea.

[to be continued in Part 3]

The Periplus of the Euxine Sea by Arrian – Part 1

Arrian, to the Emperor Caesar Trajan Hadrian  Augustus, greetings. We came to Trapezus, a Greek city, as Xenophon says, founded on the sea, a colony of the Sinopeans; and gladly we looked down on the Euxine Sea from the very same spot as both Xenophon and you.

With these words, Arrian starts his letter to Hadrian introducing the first part of his report, Tour of Colchis: From Trapezus to Sebastopolis. 

As mentioned in my previous blog, About Arrian’s Periplus of the Euxine Sea, Arrian started his journey in Trapezus. Here he visited the sanctuary of Hermes, which was also devoted to Emperor Hadrian. Arrian tells the emperor that his statue needs to be replaced with a better resemblance to the original. He also shared his critiques on the rough stone altars and the “incorrectly written” inscriptions. 

[The Caucasian Frontier of the Roman Empire. David Breeze and Kurt Schaller (CC BY-NC-SA)]

From Trapezus, Arrian sailed east to inspect the garrison of Hyssus. Here, he organized a display of javelin throwing and reminded the soldiers of Hadrian’s observations and address made in 128 AD at Lambaesis, Numidia (modern Algeria) which survived on a column found northwest of its parade ground. 

His next stop was at the temple of Athena in Athenae, where he was marooned for two days due to a violent storm of thunder and lightning, during which he lost one of his triremes. Arrian’s fleet consisted of liburnas, small galleys suitable for raiding and patrols, and large triremes. 

When it was safe to travel onwards, he anchored at the fortress of Apsarus (Gonio in modern Georgia). He inspected the weapons and provisions of the five cohorts and paid the 2,500 soldiers. Remains of this impressive Roman fortress are still standing on the left bank of the River Chorokhi where it controlled the access to the hinterland. In 135 AD, Arrian established his headquarters in Apsarus when he led the Cappadocian legions against the invading Alans.

[Remains of the Apsarus Roman Fort, Carole Raddato (CC BY-NC-SA)]

At this point in his letters, Arrian provides a list of all the rivers between Trapezus and Phasis that flow into the Euxine Sea, adding the distances between them. 

These details are helpful to follow the governor as he moved on to Phasis (see: The many colonies of Miletus), some 67 kilometers further north at the mouth of the Phasis River. This was the most important river in Colchis. It arose in the Caucasus and its water was unusually soft and sweet with changeable light color. In Phasis, he dug a ditch to protect the harbor and the settlement that had developed around the stronghold. 

Arrian’s interest and respect for the history of Jason is tickled when the locals show him an iron anchor claiming it belonged to Jason’s ship, the Argo. However, he was skeptical as it looked too recent. It seems that even in ancient times, people liked to spread tales and myths! 

The last leg of this trip took Arrian to Dioscurias, another colony of Miletus, known to him as Sebastopolis. He is said to have visited the sick, which raises the question about their ailments. He also checked the city walls and the ditch to be sure they would resist any attack from the native Colchian tribes on the eastern coast. He provided a list of their rulers subject to Rome as established by Hadrian. They were Malassas of the Lazi, Rhezmegas of the Abasci, and Spadagas of the Sanigs. 

He further inspected Sebastopolis, including the grain supply vital to the army’s survival. He paid the soldiers and watched the cavalry in their exercises leaping upon horses. 

From that harbor, the governor could see the highest peak of the Caucasus, the Strobilus, where according to myth Prometheus was bound and an eagle ate his liver that grew back overnight. The mountain was Mount Elbruz. 

This completed Arrian’s mission and he returned to the naval base of Trapezus 422 kilometers away.

[To be continued in Part 2]

The Palace of Aegae/Vergina in full glory

Back in May 2018, the restored Palace of Aegae in Vergina was expected to open to the public (see: At last, the Palace of Aegae reopens to the public) but for some unknown reason, it was delayed. 

[Picture from the Greek Reporter]

Finally, in the first week of 2024, the site has officially been opened and visitors will be able to see the Palace of Aegae in all its glory at last. 

Ever since it was built by Philip II and throughout the heyday of Macedonia, the magnificent palace was visible from afar. Set on a hillside, it was a clear symbol of power, three times larger than the Parthenon and as impressive. 

The Palace is built around a large square Peristyle surrounded by the roofed colonnade of the Stoa. The Tholos on the east side entrance, part of the impressive Propylon, has been tentatively defined as a place of worship, and the large room on the opposite west side as banqueting halls. The Palace’s living quarters occupied the south wing, including mosaic-paved Andrones. It should be noted that this architecture illustrates the innovative concept in Philip’s days. 

Interestingly, the mosaic floors that have not yet been moved to the Museum of Vergina are left in situ. Initially, the stonework and architectural decorations were covered with high-quality marble stucco that could easily be mistaken for marble. 

In December 2022, the New Museum of Aegae has been inaugurated with the Polycentric Museum which will house the statues and sculptures unearthed in the many sanctuaries of the city. It will also be used for temporary exhibitions and, most importantly, it will contain a virtual museum named “Alexander the Great: from Aegae to the World”. The multipurpose space incorporates and unites the central building with the entire archaeological site, including the Palace of Philip, the Royal Tombs cluster (see: There is more to Aegae than the Royal Palace and the Great Tumulus) and the Museum of the Royal Tomb. 

Let’s go!

About Arrian’s Periplus of the Euxine Sea

Beyond doubt, Arrian is best known for his Campaigns of Alexander the Great but as I mentioned in my earlier post, What do we know about Arrian of Nicomedia, he was a prolific writer. However, most of his works have now been lost. 

Such was the case for his Periplus of the Euxine Sea, the Circumnavigation of the Black Sea, an official military report Arrian wrote in Latin to Emperor Hadrian, who had inspected the area before him. Additionally, he composed a series of informal letters to Hadrian using Greek.

[The Periplus of the Euxine Sea, ca, 130 AD. Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-SA)]

Although Arrian was a member of the Roman imperial administration, he also belonged to the Greek literary elite. As a native of still very Greek Bithynia in Asia Minor, Arrian grew up with this dual identity making him a true Graeco-Roman. Addressing his Greek account to the Philhellenic emperor underscores his friendly and personal relationship with Hadrian.

Arrian was very much inspired by Xenophon, a philosopher, and historian from the 4^th century BC – hence his nickname of “Second Xenophon.” In fact, Arrian picked up Xenophon’s tracks on the Black Sea at Trapezus as he led his Ten Thousand according to his Anabasis.

Arrian’s Greek version of the Periplus with its valuable information about the Black Sea region luckily survived. It dates from 131 AD, one year after he had been appointed governor of Cappadocia.

In his days, Cappadocia was a Roman frontier with forts along the coast of the Black Sea. Arrian’s duty was to protect that line of defense and the routes into the hinterland up to the Parthian Empire further east. He was also responsible for the Pontic Fleet based in Trapezus (modern Trabzon) and for protecting the grain supply from Crimea. Besides those matters about his military and diplomatic mission, Arrian outlined the navigation routes and ports of the Black Sea and concentrated on economic activities and resources.

His Periplus covers a counter-clockwise voyage around the Black Sea, made in three separate trips. During his first journey, he sailed from Trapezus to Sebastopolis. His letters to Hadrian are bundled in chapters 1 to 11 and constitute the longest and most interesting part of his Greek Periplus.

His second expedition contained in chapters 12 to 17 took him from the Bosporus to Trapezus, and the third one is covered in chapters 18 to 25 traveling from Sebastopolis to Byzantium. These two voyages may well have been undertaken by different people as the narration is less personal and less fluent.

Much of the writing focuses on the rivers, landmarks, harbors, and cities, including the distances and other relevant information for sailors and travelers alike. It also includes information regarding the local population and the safe havens. True to himself, Arrian likes to insert local stories from Greek mythology such as Jason and the Argonauts and Prometheus, and often quotes Homer.

In short, a complete traveler’s guide that may still be helpful today!

[Continue reading in Part 1]