Latest e-Books - Updated September 2015

It is high time to add a few more books to the list of e-books that have come available since my last post.

I’m very happy to see that for instance all three novels by Mary Renault are now on the list:

“Fire from Heaven”. For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

“The Persian Boy”. For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

“Funeral Games” For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

Other interesting titles are:

“Alexander the Great, Historical Sources in Translation” by Waldemar Heckel

For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

“Dividing the Spoils” by Robin Waterfield

For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

“The Conquests of Alexander the Great” by Waldemar Heckel

For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

“The Field Campaigns of Alexander the Great” by Stephen English

For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

“The Macedonian War Machine 359-281 BC” by David Karunanithy

For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

“The Sieges of Alexander the Great” by Stephen English

For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

“Who’s Who” by Waldemar Heckel

For my earlier comments, please click on this link.

More will follow in due time, of course.

The Origin of the Macedonian star was Thracian?

Recent excavations at Apollonia Pontica, modern Sozopol (Bulgaria) on the Black Sea, have revealed a leaden bucranium with an eight-ray star, which possibly served as a model for the well-known Macedonian star.

[Picture from Novinite, National Historical Museum]

A bucranium is a special kind of amulet in the shape of an ox-skull known as early as the 5^th century BC in Greece, and the above-mentioned amulet-bucranium entirely fits the picture. Yet the sun symbol with its eight rays placed on the forehead of the ox is peculiar simply because it is so terribly close to the star used on the coat of arms and on the flag of Macedonia.

It seems that the sun symbol was used in Greek art long before the Macedonians adopted it. Pictures exist of hoplites bearing 16- and 8-pointed sun symbols on their shields and armor as early as the 6^th century BC; coins from Corfu, for instance, bore a sun with the same number of rays in the 5^th century BC. Both variants were also frequently represented under Macedonian rule in the 4^th century BC as we know from the tomb of Philip II of Macedonia at Vergina, where it is enhancing the lid of the larnax. Yet other examples of suns with 12 rays have been found also. And recently, the fragment of a shield carrying the inscription “King Demetrios” (apparently referring to Demetrios Poliorcetes (300-285 BC) was put up for sale by Christies’; this shield features 24 sunrays in its center, quite an unusual number.

The so-called "Vergina-Sun" and the modern flag of the Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) show a sun with 16 rays.

Is the number of sun rays really important? Maybe not but the fact that this bucranium with its starry sun has been found in Bulgaria seems to kindle a fight over its legitimacy and from what I read in the article published by Novinite, the present Director of the National Historical Museum, wants the municipality of Sozopol to sue FYROM (meanwhile renamed the Republic of Northern Macedonia) for using the star that should be Bulgarian property. What will they come up with next!

The glorious days of Palmyra

My first view of Palmyra was at nightfall when the entire city was bathed in floodlights. My eyes could not take in this fascinating scenery; it was a mere flash, a snapshot of columns and arches, of waving and fluted lines, of temples and streets whose warm tones strongly contrasted with the black velvet night sky. The mirage disappeared in the blink of an eye, but tomorrow looked most promising!

This city, which the Arabs called Tadmor, is not mentioned in Alexander’s history and was strangely enough ignored by the succeeding Seleucids who ruled over Greater Syria from 305 BC till it was annexed by Rome in 63 BC. Even at that time, it already had a long history going back to the second millennium BC as mentioned in the clay tablets found at Mari as well as in the Bible as part of Solomon’s realm. The oasis of Palmyra was generally an independent city, ideally located at the heart of the Syrian Desert, an important crossroad of several trade routes on the Silk Road. In other words, a strategic place that was most envied by the Roman Emperors.

For the next one hundred years, business boomed thanks to Palmyra’s intensive trading with Persia, India, and China and even with the Parthians who for many years were the enemies of Rome. The well-traveled Emperor Hadrian inevitably visited Palmyra in 129 AD and he was so much taken by this city that he renamed it Palmyra Hadriana and declared it independent. Unfortunately, the good days did not last and in 212 it became a Roman colony. From then onward it played a mere military role and its trading regressed, especially when the Sassanids occupied the lands between Tigris and Euphrates in the third century AD.

However, in 256/257 Palmyra’s King Odenathus (Septimus Edeinat) was held in high esteem by the Roman Emperor Valerian who appointed him Consul and Governor of the province Syria-Phoenicia that belonged to Palmyra since 194 AD. A few years later, Valerian was killed by the Sassanids (see: Sassanid reliefs tell a story of their own in Persia) and apparently, Odenathus felt morally obligated to revenge the emperor’s death. He pursued the Sassanids to their capital Ctesiphon, situated on the Tigris River, on the opposite bank of Seleucia, but failed to take the city.

At this period of time, Palmyra had reached its glory, much to the chagrin of Rome, and Odenathus was murdered under obscure circumstances. His wife, Queen Zenobia took over and ruled in the name of her minor son Vaballath. Zenobia was a tough lady who caused quite a stir in history. Classical as well as Arabic sources describe her as handsome and intelligent, with dark skin, pearly-white teeth, and sharp black eyes. She is said to be more beautiful than Cleopatra, yet very chaste. Zenobia could ride a horse like a man, and on hunting or drinking parties she stood her man. She also was very learned, fluent in Arabic, Greek, Aramean, and Egyptian, and had a good knowledge of Latin. She was a sophisticated hostess and entertained philosophers and poets, among whom the famous Cassius Longinus. This Longinus wrote especially for her one of his masterpieces in which he integrated now lost parts of love poems by Sappho of Lesbos, who composed them in the 6^th century BC.

Zenobia also was very ambitious and extended her territory to the west, occupying Bosra, and in 269-270 she even marched all the way to Egypt; on the way back she took the harbor of Antioch-on-the-Orontes. She even managed to annex a big part of Anatolia including Ancyra (Ankara) in her empire. As can be expected, the Romans were not grateful for her interference and in 272 Emperor Aurelian took Antioch-on-the-Orontes back, followed by Emesa (Homs) and finally also Palmyra. Zenobia tried to escape by fleeing across the Euphrates but she was captured and taken to Rome, together with her son, Vaballath.

Vaballath probably died on the way to Rome. In 274 Zenobia appears in golden chains during Aurelian’s triumphal march through Rome. Out of pity but also taken by her beauty and pride, he granted Zenobia her freedom and installed her in an elegant villa at Tibur (today’s Tivoli, Italy), where she lived under her Roman name of Iulia (or Julia) Aurelia Zenobia. She spent her days in wealth and became a prominent philosopher, hostess, and Roman matron. She married a Roman governor and senator whose name is not known, giving him several daughters who all married into prominent Roman families. Some sources mention that Zenobia committed suicide after Aurelian’s defeat, but that is not very credible. A great number of her descendants have been traced to far into the 4^th and 5^th centuries.

In the meantime, Palmyra had not been entirely forgotten. Emperor Diocletian enlarged the city to install his Roman legions in all comfort and built a city wall to protect them against a possible invasion by the Sassanids from Persia. Later the Byzantines constructed several churches, but after the conquest by the Arabs Palmyra played only a marginal role.

It is still early and bone-chilling when I arrive at the site of Palmyra on this November day in 2009. The blistering wind chases freely through the colonnades and ruins but strangely enough, the surrounding hills remain shrouded in a low foggy veil – an eerie scenery. For a moment I pause to get my bearings and it all seems too much to take in, so many columns, stones, arches, walls, streets, remains, etc. I am totally overwhelmed and have to kick myself to move on.

My visit starts at the eastern city gate, very appropriately called the Monumental Arch, consisting of three Roman arches of which the middle one is the largest and leads immediately to the unpaved main street. We owe this arch to Septimius Severus (193-211 AD) who ingeniously built it with a twist to cover up the 30-degrees-angle between the Decumanus on one side of the arch and the Temple of Nebo on the other side. Nebo or Nabo was the Mesopotamian god of oracles, later assimilated with Apollo – hence the importance of this Temple. The remains are still imposing with its columns along the temenos in reserved Doric style, while the columns of the Temple itself are enhanced with Corinthian capitals.

With wide open eyes, I set foot on the Great Colonnade Street or Decumanus with its wonderful 10-meter-high monolithic columns crowned with Corinthian capitals. Each column has an empty pedestal where rich or prominent gentiles could place their likeness against payment that is. Public Relations even in those days were an important tool!

Then I come across the Baths of Zenobia, a rather large bathing complex where the Frigidarium as well as the Tepidarium, and the Caldarium are clearly recognizable. At the entrance, there are four remarkable pink granite monolithic columns, which with their Corinthian capitals stand in pleasant contrast with the white-pinkish stones used for the construction of the Baths.

On the opposite side of the street, I find the remains of the theater which looks too small for a city like Palmyra. Appearances are deceptive for originally this theater from the 2^nd century AD must have counted at least 30 tiers of seats but only nine have survived. The stage with the entire skena however is still in excellent condition. The theater has obviously been restored to be used for local festivals. The high stone wall around the orchestra indicates that it was also used for wild animal fights, a favorite sport of the Romans.

At an angle lies the Agora, also from the 2^nd century, complete with its annexes. The market area is well preserved as are a number of the surrounding shops and buildings. It is always exciting to discover that besides the original columns, the 2,000 years-old walls of the building have survived, including their windows and doorframes.

Elegant typical Roman arches are still marking the crossroads along this Great Colonnade Street, and that’s how I reach the Tetrapylon, a group of four times four columns. Only one of the sixteen pink granite columns is original, imported all the way from Aswan in Egypt. The other columns are modern copies but clearly illustrate the key position of this Tetrapylon at the bend in the Great Colonnade Street. This 1200-meter-long street or Decumanus although very impressive, is however shorter than the main street at Apamea (see: Apamea, heritage of Alexander), which I found more impressive. It may seem strange that this street was never paved but the reason therefore is that the camels needed a comfortable passage through the city – an animal-friendly consideration! With its porticoes and sidewalks, this Decumanus was exceptionally wide and measured nothing less than 23 meters! This avenue alone would be worth the visit.

On the sidewalk, I discover a long row of connecting pipes belonging to an aqueduct. An awkward place, but not so when you realize that this aqueduct ran on top of the colonnade along the Decumanus. The image brings back memories of the grand aqueduct of Aspendos (see: Aspendos the unfaithful) in Turkey where I saw these elements for the first time.

And that is how I reach the columns carrying the inscriptions of Zenobia, a bilingual text in Greek and Palmyrean. On one of the columns, one can read that it was dedicated by the rulers of Tadmor to their king and master Odenathus. The other column was dedicated to Septimia Bath-Zabbai (in Greek, Zenobia), their religious and saintly queen.

From afar the Citadel with the Arabian fortress probably built in the 13^th century by the Mameluks controls the landscape. However, what we see here dates mainly from the early 17^th century when Emir Fakhr-ud-Ding-ibn-Ma’ani occupied what is now Syria and Lebanon, and constructed several strongholds as a defense against the Ottomans. It is a constant backdrop in between the columns and streets of Palmyra and a photogenic one for that matter.

Walking northwards, I stop at the Temple of Baal-Shamin, the god of rain and fertility. It was built around 150 AD and is very well preserved because the Byzantines converted it into a church. It is a cozy temple that somehow reminds me of the Temple of Nike high on the Acropolis in Athens, except that it has Corinthian columns and a window in the sidewall. The inside is very inviting with the antique naos in the back, now a semi-circular apse with slender columns. It is a lovely spot, in the shade of a young tree that grows within its sheltering walls.

Keeping the best for last is a visit to the magnificent Temple of Bel that I treated in a separate blog (see: The Temple of Bel at Palmyra – In Memoriam).

A visit is not complete without a stop at one of the many tower tombs with their underground Hypogea. I have never seen anything like it, but there always is a first time for everything. After the Valley of the Queens in Egypt, this is the largest and most impressive collection of tombs. Surprisingly the entire landscape between the city walls of Palmyra and the surrounding hills is dotted with square towers or remains thereof, containing burial sites underground as well as above ground. They generally can be dated to between the 9^th century BC and the 2^nd century AD. I am told there are as many as 150 tombs, a significant number. Yet I have no idea what to expect.

The tower tomb of the Elahbel Family from 103 AD seems to be the most popular, and that is no wonder. I step inside a rather large rectangular room, deeper than it is wide and pretty high as well. The ceiling is still intact and is made of colorful starry caissons with at its center four portraits of the founders set against a bright blue background. What a beauty! The long side walls are meant to receive the remains of the dead in one of the four stories high slots. In this way, there was enough space for future generations, at least 300 family members. The vertical pillars separating the rows are fluted and crowned with a Corinthian capital. To the left of the entrance door is a staircase that leads to the upper floor, meaning that access to the superposed niches was easy enough.

Unfortunately, I am running out of time and I have to skip the less impressive remains on the north-western side of Palmyra with the Temple of Allat, the Temple with the Emblems, the Grave Temple, the Camp of Diocletian and especially the Oval Forum – although I was curious whether it was as big as the one at Gerasa (Jerash) in Jordan; probably not since I haven’t seen any pictures so far.

Yes, I am one of the lucky few to have seen this great and glorious city with my own eyes. The famous Temple of Bel (see: The Temple of Bel at Palmyra – In Memoriam) survived wars and conflicts for nearly two thousand years to shine in all its glory. This glory is gone now in 2015 as this great sanctuary and many other precious buildings have been blasted to dust. A part of the world’s history has been annihilated and obliterated. Our ancestors deserved a better fate.

My story and my pictures are a praise to Palmyra’s rich memory and to all those brave forefathers and fellow citizens who have lived there and led the city to its greatness.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Palmyra]
[The picture of Odenathus comes from Wikipedia. The concept of Zenobia from Zenobia, empress of the East]

Sassanid reliefs tell a story of their own in Persia

Traveling through Iran, you simply can’t miss these many reliefs. The Sassanid kings definitely were not modest and took pride in advertising their investiture and their conquests on several cliff walls, generally located close to a water source. Yet, you’ll ask, what is their connection to Alexander the Great?

Well, it may be far-fetched but whatever you think, Hellenism and today’s way of living are all a consequence of Alexander’s conquests anyway; so why not include the Sassanids to start with? Another reason is that the Sassanid kings tried to recreate the Achaemenid Empire and repossess the territories that fell under their rule some five hundred years before.

As we know, the Achaemenid Empire ended when Alexander the Great conquered Persia, his first step being his victory at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC and his final move being the execution of Bessus, the self-appointed successor of King Darius III in 329 BC. After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, his empire was eventually cut up among his leading generals. Seleucos I ruled over the eastern part of Alexander’s Empire from 312 BC onwards, and his realm included Persia. But soon, the Parthians from northern Iran would revolt against the Seleucids, and by 171 BC, their King Mithridates the Great really put his new empire on the map to include, besides modern Iran, Iraq, and Armenia, parts of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Azerbaijan, and Turkey as well. The Parthian empire collapsed when the Persians of the Sassanid dynasty took over in 224 AD. That’s it in a nutshell, of course.

The Sassanid kings, in turn, ruled for more than four hundred years and it is not surprising that they left a heritage of their own. Overall they wanted to emulate the Achaemenids in their art, and the figures in the reliefs are still rather stiff and emotionless, although the flow of their dresses hints at a slight Greek influence. A noticeable difference also is that some of the personages are shown facing the onlooker or at least in a three-quarter’s position and not in profile as the Achaemenids did.

It does come as a surprise to find the far-reaching impression Hellenism has left in Sogdiana, Bactria, or India, while here in Sassanid Persia, it hardly shows. Looking at their silver tableware or at their coinage, it is even very hard to tell them apart from similar Achaemenid artifacts.

Taq-i Bostan

The first Sassanid reliefs I came to see were those of Taq-i Bostan, an idyllic place set along a reflecting pool fed by several sacred springs not too far from the city of Kermanshah in western Iran. The main features are two arches. The largest one and most lavishly decorated is showing the investiture of King Khosrow II, who ruled from 591 to 628 AD. On the upper level, he is standing between Ahuramazda and the goddess Anahita (see: The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia), and on the lower register, the king is on horseback. Both side walls are richly decorated with hunting scenes of wild boars on the left and deer on the right side. The carved angels floating above the iwan stand for victory.

The smaller arch or iwan contains a relief of King Shapur III (who reigned from 383 to 388 AD) facing his father Shapur II (the Great), who ruled from 309 to 379 AD. Next to each king is an explanatory inscription in Pahlavi giving the names of their respective father and grandfather. It specifies that each king worshipped Ahuramazda and ruled over Iran and “non-Iran.”

Past these two arches is another relief, this time cut into the very cliff wall itself. This is the oldest relief and represents the investiture of King Ardashir II (379-383 AD) on foot. He is receiving his crown from Ahuramazda standing next to him, while on his other side, we recognize the god Mithra who is carrying the sacred barsom (bundle of small rods), symbolizing power. This investiture includes Ardashir’s triumph over the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate in 363 AD, who is lying at his feet.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Taq-i Bostan]

Bishapur

The next reliefs I’m encountering are those of Tang-i Tchogan at Bishapur, located between Kazarun and Shiraz, along the Shapur River, glorifying King Shapur I, who founded Bishapur in 266 AD. From this new capital with its unique and awkward Temple of Anahita (see: The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia), we have to cross the river for a closer look at the six Sassanid rock reliefs in the cliffs facing us.

It is at Bishapur, that Shapur I (reigned from 241 to 272 AD) inaugurated the Sassanid imagery of the king's investiture, which would be copied by his successors: the king and the god are face to face, often on horseback, and the god - usually Ahuramazda - is handing the royal diadem over to the sovereign. Shapur I is represented on three separate reliefs, commemorating his triple triumph over Rome, having killed Gordian III (in 244 AD), forced Philip the Arab to surrender ( also in 244 AD) and captured Valerian (in 260 AD) – no small matter, of course.

The largest relief is nearly 12.5 meters long and 4.50 high and is divided into several distinctive parts. At its center, we see the investiture of Shapur I riding his horse, whose left hoof is resting on the head of the defeated Emperor Gordian III lying at his feet. At the same time, the king is grasping the wrist of Emperor Philip the Arab standing next to him. Facing him, we recognize the kneeling Emperor Valerian begging for mercy while two Persian dignitaries are standing behind him. Above King Shapur’s head, we notice a winged Nike (a Greek influence, after all!) holding the crown of victory. The left panel is split into two registers, one above the other, in which five Persian horsemen are depicted in profile. The right panel also split into two rows, shows five smaller scenes that cannot be identified properly but where we recognize the Persian army and possibly mercenaries from different parts of the empire.

The next relief is set in a concave part of the cliff and is 6.80 meters high and 9.20 meters wide. Surprisingly, it has been inspired by the Column of Trajan in Rome. In the center, we find King Shapur I in the same traditional composition as seen in the previous relief, with Emperor Gordian stretched underneath his horse and the king holding the wrist of Philip the Arab. The panels on either side are very elaborate and detailed. Unfortunately, during my visit, the view was impaired by a heavy scaffold, and it wasn’t easy to make out the crowded scenes. To the left, the Persian cavalry is approaching in two rows, one above the other, with only the top body of the riders and the front of the horses visible. On the right-hand side, much more is happening in the five small panels depicting Persian soldiers and Roman prisoners bringing in the booty, as well as mercenaries from all over the empire.

To the right of this concave relief, there is a flat one 7.5 meters long showing King Bahram II (276-293 AD) receiving a delegation of Bedouins. Bahram II is on horseback holding the reins with his right hand and his bow and arrows in his left. A Persian officer on foot leads the Bedouins in their typical dress; in the back of the picture, there are three more men with horses and camels.

This brings us to the relief with the investiture on horseback of Bahram I facing Ahuramazda on an identical horse handing over the crown with ribbons. The figure on the floor underneath the king could be Bahram III and was added later by King Narseh (reigned 293-302 AD), who also wrote the Pahlavi inscription.

This relief is followed by a large one (11 meters long and 4.5 meters high) divided by cross-shaped beams representing the victory of King Shapur II (who reigned from 309 to 379 AD) over the Romans and the Christians. This picture is totally different from the previous scenes; it looks rough and unfinished, probably because originally it was plastered and painted. The top central figure is the king in person in a sitting position, looking rather frightful. In the presence of his nobles on his left, he reviews the prisoners and the booty. On the bottom left quarter, we find Persian warriors following the king’s horse that is being led forward. To the right of the king, Persian soldiers are bringing in the captives, while on the bottom right quarter, soldiers are carrying decapitated heads, surrounded by Persian warriors and nobles carrying vases. I wonder if this is meant to frighten his people.

A last relief along this peaceful river is around the bend and less well preserved. It is, in fact, a repeat of an identical previous picture of Shapur I, enjoying his victory over Emperor Gordian III, Emperor Philip the Arab, and the best preserved Emperor Valerian kneeling in front of him.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Bishapur]

Naqs-i Rajab

Close to Persepolis, there are two more sites with rock-reliefs. Here again, we find the investiture of Shapur I as represented above, where the king on horseback is receiving his crown from Ahuramazda, facing him and sitting on an identical horse.

On the opposite wall in this loop, there is another relief of Shapur I (reigned from 241 till 272 AD), this time showing the king on horseback surrounded by nine court dignitaries. Four of these nobles are more or less hidden behind the horse, and the first man behind the king. In his direct suite, three muscled men occupy a prominent position, with a hand on their long sword; the two others are mere busts. On the rear of the horse, there is a trilingual inscription in Parthian, Pahlavi, and Greek. This is the last known Greek inscription in Iran.

From an earlier date is the adjacent investiture of Ardashir I on foot, the very founder of the Sassanid Dynasty, who reigned from 224-241 AD. He is receiving his crown from Ahuramazda facing him. In between them, we see two smaller figures; the dressed one is believed to be King Bahram I, the oldest son of Shapur I facing the naked god of the same name, who was later identified as the Greek Heracles. Behind Ardashir I stands a courtier holding a fan. Next to him, we recognize crown-prince Shapur I. Exceptional is the presence of two women on the right, undoubtedly members of the royal family, and the one on the far end could be Ardashir’s spouse and sister Denak.

It is here that we find the highly unusual representation of the Zoroastrian high priest, Katir, mentioned in the context of the Zoroastrian Tower at nearby Naqsh-i Rustam (see: The Cube of Zoroaster or the Ka’bah-i Zardusht at Naqsh-i Rustam) with a Pahlavi inscription.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Naqsh-i Rajab]

Naqsh-i Rustam

Naqsh-i Rustam is within walking distance from Naqs-i Rajab and has by far the greatest number of rock reliefs, both Achaemenid (see: Achaemenid Tombs at Naqsh-i Rustam and Persepolis) and Sassanid. These Sassanid reliefs have been etched in a lower register beneath the Achaemenid tombs, and there is actually a series of seven such reliefs carved some five hundred years after the tombs for the Achaemenid kings.

For Shapur I, his triumph over the Romans is a repeat, although less elaborate than what I have seen at Bishapur (see here above).

The most popular figure here is, however, King Bahram II, who reigned over Persia from 276 to 293 AD. We find this king three times:

- with family members and court dignitaries bringing homage to their king:

Here the king is larger than life-size (2.5 meters) set at the center of the relief, his hands resting on his long sword. Among the five members of the royal family on the left, we see the high priest Kartir and the queen. On the right are the busts of three courtiers.

- in a cavalry fight (located below the Tomb of Darius II, see: Achaemenid Tombs at Naqsh-i Rustam and Persepolis)

Here the king is fighting a mounted Roman soldier, clearly hitting his adversary.

- in a double cavalry fight (located below the Tomb of Darius I, see: Achaemenid Tombs at Naqsh-i Rustam and Persepolis) :

This scene is split into two panels. In the upper panel, the king in scaled armor is meeting his mounted Roman enemy in full gallop, while on the lower panel, a helmeted prince is facing his enemy in the same fashion as the king above. In both cases, the dead enemy is lying under the horse’s hooves.

Like at Naqsh-i Rajab, there is another investiture of Ardashir I, the founder of the Sassanid Dynasty, receiving his crown from Ahuramazda, both on horseback and facing each other. This panel carries a trilingual inscription in Parthian, Pahlavi, and Greek.

The rock relief depicting the investiture of King Narseh on foot shows how he is receiving his crown from Anahita, although this is being disputed since his posture does not the appropriate one for meeting a goddess; it is thought that the lady is a relative, maybe Queen Shapurdokhtak. In between them stands a smaller figure, and it is suggested that this could be Narseh’s grandson and the son of Hormizd II. King Narseh succeeded Bahram II in 293 AD, and his successor, in turn, is Hormizd II.

King Hormizd II comes to power in 303 AD and is shown in the cliff wall underneath the Tomb of Artaxerxes I. He is riding a galloping horse, forcing his opponent from his horse with his lance.

And finally, the last relief is that of King Shapur II, who ruled from 309 to 379 AD, sitting on the throne.

In between this relief and the Tomb of Artaxerxes is a badly damaged and hardly recognizable relief of what is thought to be Shapur II surrounded by his courtiers.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Naqsh-i Rustam]

It is clear that the Sassanid kings intended to leave their imprint on their empire, of which they were very proud. For me, the history of Persia would not have been complete without talking about the Sassanids, as they were the last of the long lineage of rulers that started with Cyrus the Great (see: Cyrus the Great, who made Pasargadae the capital of Persia). The rise of Islam spreading along the trade routes ever further east put a final end to the Sassanids and to the grandeur of Persia.

Two more cities of Libya’s Pentapolis: Taucheira and Euesperides

The Libyan Pentapolis included Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptolemais (or Barca), Arsinoe (or Taucheira) and Euesperides (or Berenice), all situated in Cyrenaica in eastern Libya. The region was very fertile and produced wheat and barley, as well as olive oil and wine; the orchards, in turn, were filled with fig and apple trees; sheep and cattle roamed widely; and above all, this was the only place in the world where silphium grew, a natural medicine, a contraceptive, and aphrodisiac.

[Picture from Livius]

I previously developed the history and roles of major cities like Cyrene, Apollonia, and Ptolemais, so, this time, I’ll concentrate on Arsinoe or Taucheira (modern Tocra) and Euesperides or Berenice (near modern Benghazi) to make the story complete although I have not personally visited these sites.

Ancient Taucheira lies 70 km to the east of Benghazi and was probably the smallest city of the Pentapolis. It was founded by colonists from Cyrene not too long after Cyrene’s own foundation. It was Ptolemy II Philadelphus who changed the city’s name into Arsinoe after his sister and wife. Unfortunately, Justinian gave orders to build a new wall around the city for which stones from earlier constructions were used – in accordance with the typical Byzantine fashion. As a result, not many ruins are left to see although the general layout is still recognizable in spite of the overgrowth. A good viewpoint is the tower erected by the Italians who occupied Libya early last century.

Euesperides, on the other hand, was founded around 525 BC, probably by people from Cyrene or from Barca, on an edge of the lagoon opening towards the sea. The name Euesperides is thought to refer to the mythological gardens of Hesperides. After Ptolemy III married Berenice, the daughter of the governor of Cyrene in 246 BC, the city was named Berenice after his wife. But that was not enough in Ptolemy’s eyes for he moved the entire city to the present location of Benghazi, although the move may have been triggered by the silting up of the lagoon.

The oldest coins minted in Euesperides are from 480 BC and carry an engraving of Delphi with on the reverse a picture of the now disappeared silphium plant. This is a sign that the city enjoyed a certain independence from Cyrene at the time. The constitution of Euesperides was similar to that of Cyrene, meaning that it was ruled by a board of chief magistrates and a council of elders.

After the death of Alexander the Great, the city knew uncertain times and even the Ptolemaic dynasty was not able to keep a true hold on the Pentapolis. It later became a bishopry and was taken by the Ottomans in 1540. Modern Benghazi is built right on top of Ptolemy’s city, meaning that there is only a slim chance to find any tangible remains from antiquity.