Knowledge about atoms in Alexander’s days

The knowledge of people in antiquity, and in this case of Alexander the Great, never ceases to amaze me.

This time I came across the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus who lived in the fifth century BC. The information about this brilliant mind often called the father of modern science, is very scanty. Some claim he was born in Abdera, in modern Thracian Greece, around 460 BC, whereas others state that he was born in Miletus in 490 BC. His death is also shrouded in mystery as some sources tell us that he died at the age of 104 or maybe 109. Well, we should not be picky about such details, should we?

Critical, however, is his theory that the universe is made up of tiny “atoms”. On this topic also, historians differ as a similar theory is being attributed to the contemporary philosopher Leucippus although each one is based on a different principle. Nonetheless, the very concept of ‘atoms’ became the staple of the modern scientific tradition.

According to Democritus, everything in the universe is composed of “atoms”, a kind of invisible building stones. Atoms are in constant motion and are separated by empty space. Their number is endless, and they all differ in shape and size. Noticeable is that Democritus described atoms in different shapes, sizes, and arrangements, connected to each other with some kind of hooks and eyes, balls, and sockets. Most importantly, the concept provided an explanation as to why the idea of a void was necessary in nature. Unlike philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle who were more concerned about the soul, Democritus looked at the world from the practical point of view.

Democritus came from a wealthy and noble family who had strong ties with the Persian King Xerxes. Eventually, he was influenced and/or instructed by Chaldeans and Magi. Democritus traveled extensively to Asia and Egypt. He may have gone as far as India and Ethiopia. On the road, he may have met Anaxagoras, Hippocrates, and Socrates, although his real mentor was Leucippus of Miletus who shared his theory of atomism.

As such, Democritus was an incredibly fascinating figure, but when we realize that he lived a good century before Alexander, our view of antiquity takes an entirely different twist. If only because of his teaching by Aristotle, we have no reason at all to doubt that the king was totally familiar with this atomic theory (and many others for that matter).

We still like to file our knowledge away in separate boxes by country or ideology while in reality, the world in antiquity was at least as vast as ours is today.

Those who want to dig deeper into the atomic theory and the role played by Democritus may want to read this article published in The Universe Today.

[Picture of Democritus from The Universe Today]

Deciphering cuneiform texts

Translating the content of tens of thousands clay tablets is a lengthy and time consuming process that can only be compared with the huge amount of papyri scraps that were recovered at Oxyrhynchus. As far as the papyri are concerned, a new computer based program has been put into place (see: Get involved with Oxyrhynchus) to help and accelerate the translations.

Reading cuneiform signs is a far more complicated operation but it is heartwarming to learn that scientists have been able to get extra help from their computer technology as well. The main problem in processing these tablets is the fact that the signs are tri-dimensional and that the cuneiform characters are very diverse.

Thanks to a breakthrough at the University of Chicago, they are now able to make automated transcriptions, especially of those texts that were recovered from the Persepolis area in 1933. Our knowledge about the Achaemenid history is growing rapidly.

This new technology enables to create a database management platform and over the last five years the system has improved significantly. As a result, scholars have created a good machine learning procedure. Currently over 60 terabytes of digitized high-resolution images have been created and are being made ready to return to Iran

The present collection has led to the creation a dictionary of the Elamite language that can be used by today’s students. The machine learning model can successfully decipher cuneiform signs with an accuracy of approx. 80% already. Being able to translate and identify most of the repetitive parts, frees a lot of time for those experts whose task remains to analyze and interpret the difficult place names or signs that still need closer study.

In the future, the deciphering system can be shared with other archaeologists to retrain it in such a way that cuneiform languages other than Elamite can be translated as well. There still is so much to be discovered!

Excavations resume at the Sanctuary of Samothrace

You would expect that the Sanctuary of the Great Gods at Samothrace is one of the most frequently visited sites in Greece. It is surprising, however, to learn that the latest excavations took place some twenty-two years ago. Technology and up-to-date techniques have certainly evolved since then and it will be interesting to hear what this new five-year research project will reveal.

Samothrace is very closely tied to the Royal House of Macedonia, especially since the parents of Alexander the Great, Philip, and Olympias first met here. The majority of the buildings date from the 4^th century BC, and the Sanctuary reached its peak in the 3^rd and 2^nd centuries BC. It was ultimately abandoned by the end of the 4^th century AD.

The first excavations will start around the Stoa, the Theater, and the so-called perivolos (court surrounded by a low wall) where the famous Nike of Samothrace once stood.

The Stoa is remarkable because of its grand scale, measuring about 104 meters in length. It is the only monument constructed using local limestone from the nearby quarry of Adrotiri near modern Kamariotissa. This is the area where the impressive Nike that is now on display at the Louvre in Paris was retrieved.

[Picture from The Archaeology News Network]

The main problem is that in and around the Sanctuary not one single stone from the retaining wall is still in its original place. The inventory made by the archaeologists mentions 1,700 loose pieces of limestone, 1,000 bits of roofing, and an endless number of fragments that decorated the interior walls.

The excavating team has high hopes that a 3D digital model of the Sanctuary will provide a better view of the location and proportion of the many buildings. Good luck to them!

Hecatompylos, where Darius’ pursuit ended

After a neck-breaking day and night march over difficult terrain, Alexander finally caught up with Darius at Hecatompylos, near modern Damghan (see: Alexander in hot pursuit of Darius). The exact location has been pinpointed at Shahr-e Qumis in north-central Iran.

Once the body of Darius was sent to Queen Sisygambis for proper burial, Alexander allowed his men a well-deserved rest. Those troops that had not been able to keep up with his excessive speed also regrouped. The army was now two days away from the border of Hyrcania, approximately 200 kilometers from the Caspian Gates. In the wider area supplies were available in great number allowing the soldiers to catch their breath for the fertility of Hyrcania was legendary.

[Picture from the Archaeology News Network]

After the king’s death, the area became part of the Seleucid Empire and from 247 till 224 BC Hecatompylos turned to be the capital of the ruling Parthian Empire. It flourished until it was hit and destroyed by an earthquake in 856 AD and Hecatompylos (meaning one hundred gates) was never rebuilt.

In recent decennia, new archaeologist projects went underway with the main purpose to put Hecatompylos back on the map. It is a tall order since today the wide plains of Shahr-e Qumis are absolutely deserted. The picture published in the Archaeology News Network is not inviting at all and it is hard to imagine how such a great city like Hecatompylos could ever have flourished on the spot. It is a huge field covered with shards resembling an abandoned pottery workshop. This area alone measured seven by four kilometers, which by deduction suggest that the population of Hecatompylos would have counted some tens of thousands. The figure may, however refer to the city’s heyday when it was part of the Seleucid Empire or when it was the capital of the Arsacid dynasty by 200 BC.

Whatever the case, we may expect a great deal of surprises and hopefully a huge amount of monuments ranging from the days of Alexander all the way to the 9^th century AD.

Triumphal Arch south of the Cilician Gates

Following the Via Tauri after crossing the Cilician Gates, Alexander was informed that the governor of Tarsus no longer wished to hold the city for Persia and was ready to give up the town. Afraid that the satrap would plunder the city on his way out, the people got scared and called for Alexander’s help.

[Picture from the Archaeology News Network]

At that time, the Macedonians were marching near Anazarbus, which after the first century AD the Romans renamed Caesarea. Eventually, the city grew to be much larger than Ephesos.

Anavarza, as the Turks called it today, has been constantly excavated in the last decades and revealed a double-columned highway, 2.7 kilometers long (see: A double highway in antiquity). So far, 1,360 columns have been unearthed and re-erected together with the entrance gate. This arch, which was built to commemorate the Roman victory over the Persians in the 3^rd century AD, was in a very poor state.

The picture published recently by the Archaeology News Network proves, however, that the restoration project was well done. The 14-meter high gate is 28 meters long and 5.40 meters wide, a correction of the previous dimensions giving a height of 10.5 meters and a width of 22.5 meters (see: More news from Anavarza, Roman Caesarea) – an impressive landmark anyway.

Visiting the tomb of Agios Athanasios

The Tomb of Agios Athanasios dating from the late 4th century BC is an absolute gem that is to be found some 15 kilometers" away from Pella. Yet I was not aware that the actual site was open to the public.

[Picture from Peter Sommer Travels’ Facebook]

Peter Sommer Travels’ Facebook seems to hint in that direction as they hope to include a visit to the grave site during their upcoming tour “Exploring Macedonia” which will run from 9 June 2020 to 20 June 2020.

I remember spending hours on all fours in front of the panels and reproductions at the Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki (see: The Macedonian Tomb of Agios Athanasios in Thessaloniki) taking in all the tiny colorful details of which there are very many.

The two figures guarding the tomb entrance are often depicted but it must be a very unique experience to see the entire façade as it is meant to discover. The frescoes are far more than static figures, as they highlight how the guests behaved, how they were catered with food and wine, and what they wore for such a burial symposium. The same applies to the military equipment of the infantry standing around.