Odd hexagonal Dacian mold

It is heartwarming to read that archaeological excavations are still ongoing at the site of Sarmizegetusa Regia in Romania. 

The old capital was a stronghold situated at an elevation of 1200 meters and built over five terraces. It contained a separate ceremonial zone, a residential area, and a fortress serving state and civic matters. 

The largest Dacian sanctuaries occupied the ceremonial quarter with several temples and a circular sanctuary delimited by a set of wooden posts in the shape of the letter D. This was, in turn, surrounded by a circle of wooden posts, which sat inside a line of curb stone used for astronomical observations or perhaps even as a solar calendar. 

In my earlier blog about Dacia (see: Dacia before Alexander), I mentioned the artistry of this country’s artisans. My praise was undoubtedly not exaggerated, considering the highly complex bronze mold unearthed in 2013. When a tree on the site collapsed after a storm, the mold was discovered entangled in its roots. 

It has been established that a Dacian jeweler created this octagonal matrix during the 1st century BC to produce decorative mythological figures made from precious metals. As such, it is the only one of its kind in Europe. 

What makes it so unique is that it contains a whole series of molds of real animals, including a lion, tiger, leopard, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, bear, boar, bull, wolf, antelope, and rabbit. There also are mythological animals, such as a vulture-griffin, a lion-griffin, and a wolf-griffin. 

This eight-kilogram matrix is 5 cm thick and has been described as having eight facets, two of which are hexagonal. Expert analysis has revealed that the images confirm Dacia’s close links with the Mediterranean and Pontic regions. 

Given the importance of this mold, authorities have decided to exhibit it in a separate secured room at the Dacian and Roman Civilization Museum in Deva. Here, visitors can look closely at the animals depicted on the matrix. Deva is some 400 km northwest of Bucharest and roughly 60 km north of Sarmizegetuza. 

Prior to this find, a sophisticated, more than 2000-year-old calendar was discovered. The Dacian calendar counted 365.242197 days in a year, which beats the ancient Mayan calendar by 12 seconds. Our modern Gregorian calendar counts 365.2425 days in a year. 

Well, so much for the knowledge of people in antiquity!

[Pictures from eutimes.net]

Preparations to sail down the Indus

The history of Alexander’s conquests in India usually relates the facts in a succession of events without paying much attention to the king’s thorough planning and preparation ahead. To sail down the Indus was an expedition by itself, which is generally ignored.

Alexander withdrew in style from the Hyphasis. After building twelve altars to thank the gods for having led him so far as conqueror and leaving an impressive memorial to his own accomplishments, he turned around to cross the Hyphasis, Hydraotes, and Acesines once again (see: Alexander erected twelve altars on the banks of the Hyphasis). 

Hence, the army marched to the Hydaspes, where Alexander had founded the cities of Alexandria Nicaea and Alexandria Bucephala (see: The edge of the world was not reached). According to his instructions, many ships had already been assembled, but he needed to build many more before sailing south. Within two months, the entire fleet was ready. It consisted of eighty thirty-oared galleys, troop carriers, flat-bottomed boats for horse transport, circular tubs, local river boats, and enormous grain-lighters for supplies. The latter is a forerunner of the modern LASH ship or Lighter Aboard Ship that loads and unloads barges, as still used on the Indus.  Known locally as zobruks, they have a shallow draught and huge sail, perfectly suitable in strong currents. Each vessel could hold more than two hundred tons of grain to feed the army on their voyage to the Ocean.

This was a massive operation that Alexander had planned meticulously. He selected the Phoenicians, Carians, Cyprians, and Egyptians who served in his army. From them, he chose men with nautical skills for crews and rowers. Other experts were selected from among the islanders (from the Aegean), Ionians from Asia Minor, and people from the Hellespont.

Imagine this armada of up to 2,000 vessels (half the flotilla that crossed the Channel on D-Day!), moving at the shouts of the coxswain (steersman) as his rhythmic call was echoed by the high riverbanks mingled with the noise of splashing oars. 

Another factor worth considering is the number of troops needed to be moved. Back on the Hydaspes, 35,000 fresh soldiers had swollen Alexander’s total manpower to a massive 120,000! His cavalry, at this point, has been estimated to be some 15,000. However, not all the men and horses boarded the ships; neither did the impressive baggage train.

Alexander organized the army in three divisions as he would personally lead the fleet from his Royal galley with the support of his shield-bearers guards, all the archers, and the Companion cavalry – totaling 8,000 men. Hephaistion would march along the east bank of the Hydaspes while Craterus would lead the west bank with part of the infantry and the cavalry. Hephaistion took with him the bulk of the fighting troops and 200 elephants. Their instructions were to march together in advance and wait for the fleet.

The king took command after having performed extensive sacrifices to his ancestral gods and the deities of the river and Ocean. With a golden goblet, he poured a libation into the river from the prow of his ship – entirely in style with the solemn occasion. 

As soon as the trumpets signaled the departure, the voyage started in regular order. It was a hazardous enterprise, but the king had instructed how many baggage vessels were to sail abreast and the place for the boats carrying the horses and the ships of war. All vessels were to keep their distance and stay in formation, adapting their speed accordingly. Given the different sizes of boats ranging from warships and baggage vessels to horse transports, they individually required accurate steering and high alertness of their pilots. The purpose was that the ships would not fall out of each other or sail down randomly. Nearchus of Crete was appointed admiral of the fleet, with Onesicritus of Cos as his second and helmsman of the Royal flagship. 

Even after the monsoon rains had stopped, the annual flow of the Hydaspes was two times faster than that of the Nile or three times that of the Euphrates and the Tigris combined. The current would increase notably as the river narrows, particularly at the confluence with the Acesines. The roaring of the water could be heard miles ahead as the surface roughened.  

At last, the fleet made it across the narrows where the two rivers met, and the banks receded. The stream slackened, and Alexander found a protected spot on the right bank to moor his ships safely. Here, the men could take a break and make the necessary repairs before moving onward. 

Alexander was about to enter the land of the warlike Malians, who had been preparing for the confrontation.

Dacia before Alexander

Dacia is a Roman name. When Emperor Trajan conquered the territory of what is now Romania in 106 AD, he called it the province of Dacia Felix. The new capital was Ulpia Traiana Sarmisegetusa, i.e.,  today’s Sarmizegetusa Regia.

The Dacians, however, were known to the Greeks as Getae, the very people Alexander chased across the Danube in 335 BC (see: Crossing the Danube River and The King is dead, long live the King). After the king’s death, Lysimachos, who became king of neighboring Thracia, waged repeated wars against the Getae without success. He was even captured by their king, who forced him to withdraw from the Lower Danube in 292 BC. 

Interestingly, Strabo states that although the language of the Dacians is the same as the Getae's, the name applies to their location. The Getae lived close to the Pontus Euxinus, the Black Sea, and the Dacians, closer to Germany and the sources of the Ister, the Danube River. They somehow managed to co-exist if they did not mingle with earlier settlers. 

In the second half of the 7th century BC, Ionian Greeks had already emigrated to the shores of the Black Sea to escape the expansion of the Persian Empire. The most prominent group of colonies came from Miletus, who, in 630 BC, founded their first town Histria at the mouth of the Danube (see: The many colonies of Miletus). The Greek colonists remained in Dacia until 46 AD. 

Before them, the nomadic Scythians driving their cattle ever further west from the steppes of Central Asia were in regular contact with the Getae/Dacians from c. 550 to 250 BC. The Scythians left us no writing, but the artifacts found in and around their occasional settlements testify of highly skilled artists. 

Three years ago, in 2020, the Gallo-Roman Museum in Tongeren, Belgium, organized a wonderful exhibition Dacia Felix taking us back in time. The selected objects came from various Romanian museums, particularly the National Museum of Romanian History in Bucharest, which most of us will not readily visit. It offered a unique opportunity to see these unique artifacts brought together. 

Particularly striking are the Getae’s parade helmets with eyes to ward off the evil spirits. One such helmet is made of gold and is decorated with mythological figures. It has been dated to 425-375 BC. Another example from 400-300 BC is made of gilded silver. Although these were ritual helmets, it is easy to imagine how piercing eyes would scare off the enemy if worn in close combat! A silver gilded greave with a tattooed face dated 340-330 BC is another example of Getaen art influenced by the Scythians and the Greeks. 

The smaller gold and silver artifacts also call for attention. There are appliques otherwise known from Scythian art used to decorate the horses’ bridles and harnesses. Some specimens even show Persian influences (400-300 BC). 

The Getaen men of power, such as high priests and kings, wore finely crafted bracelets. A solid gold spiral specimen with ram heads (500-400 BC) weighs no less than one kilogram! Another eye-catcher is a gold diadem with panthers and flowers (400-200 BC). 

To illustrate that the Getae were not limited to today’s Romania, there are two very similar goblets on display, one silver gilded from neighboring Bulgaria, 400-300 BC, and the other found in Romania made in silver and dated to 340-330 BC. 

The Celts, in turn, occupied the fertile lands of Dacia roughly from 320 until 175 BC, i.e., after one group of warriors had sacked Rome in 387 BC. These tribes never intended to settle but were constantly hunting for precious goods. Although the Celts shared the same language and religion, they roamed in separate bands along the northern borders of Thracia, Macedonia, and Italy. 

As expected, the Celts left us weapons, helmets, and decorations for horse harnesses, mainly from their grave sites. The most remarkable legacy is an iron helmet holding a falcon on top dated from 250-175 BC. The chief who wore it must have impressed his opponents with his stature, as the bird made him look much taller. Besides, the realistic falcon acted as a symbol of power.

Dacia sometimes stretched beyond Romania, including northern Bulgaria, southwestern Ukraine, and Hungary east of the Danube. The rich testimonies of Scythians, Getae, and Celts are left undocumented as these peoples did not have any writing. Their heritage is solely based on archaeological excavations, which yielded a wide array of artifacts, including precious jewelry and decorative items.

It should be noted that the battle depicted in Trajan’s Column in Rome reflects the emperor’s sacking of Ulpia Traiana Sarmisegetusa in 106 AD after the Dacians failed to respect the peace conditions of their surrender. Something worth remembering during our next visit to the eternal city!