Extending digital database for threatened archaeological sites

Recently, there have been several initiatives to revive threatened archaeological sites and to compensate for lost antiquities in war zones. Our precious historical sites face damage from looting (mostly tied to wartime conflicts), mining, and construction projects and to a certain degree from agriculture and natural erosion.

[Clik here to open the EAMENA map]

In an earlier blog, Will a Digital Library of the Middle East compensate for the war losses I highlighted the joint efforts of the CLIR (Council on Library and Information Resources) and the DLME (Digital Library of the Middle East) to create an online inventory of artifacts from our cultural heritage, including otherwise undocumented or uncatalogued items. A separate blog, A Way to Revive the Museum of Raqqa in Syria underscored the initiative of the DGAM (Syrian Directorate General of Antiquities and Museum) together with that of the Section Archaeology of the Near East from the University of Leiden, Netherlands. They may be a mere drop in the ocean but every single effort to preserve our heritage is most welcome, hence worth mentioning.

This means that the latest database created by the EAMENA (Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa) is no luxury. The search can be filtered in several ways and is very user-friendly. Since 2015, they have cataloged over 20,000 archaeological sites at severe risk and the information is constantly being updated. Initially, the team created a wide aerial photographic collection to document the archaeological sites especially in the Middle East (APAAME, Aerial Photographic Archive for Archaeology in the Middle East) that is also accessible.

The easiest way to start your search is by clicking on the EAMENA map and follow the instructions.

The Lost World of the Aegean by Maitland A. Edey

In the series The Emergence of Man, Time-Life has edited this book, The Lost World of the Aegean by Maitland A. Edey (ASIN: B000SZQWW2) in the mid-1970s but the subject and the results achieved are still very current.

At the time of my purchase, I was introduced to the Minoan civilization which is nicely developed and pictured in this book. In fact, the package offers much more than this slice of the history of mankind and is a wonderful introduction to the history of the Greek people and their origins. There are many theories but nobody really knows who the people were who would become the Greeks, where they came from, or when they arrived. In his book, Maitland Edey refers to a great study made by a British archaeologist who specialized in the Bronze Age Aegean and more specifically the Cyclades, Colin Refrew.

The thorough study based mainly on shards of pottery has led to dividing those early ages into three distinct periods:

- The Early Bronze Age (3000-2000 BC) with a parallel comparison of Early Cycladic, Minoan and Helladic vessels;

- The Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 BC) with a similar comparison between Middle Cycladic, Minoan, and Helladic; and finally

- The Late Bronze Age (1500-1100 BC), showing parallels between Late Cycladic, Minoan, and Hellenic which is also known as Mycenaean

The Bronze Age in the Cyclades is carefully examined with their enigmatic and typical marbles. An evolution in the art of these statuettes can be established ranging from the violin-shaped females with their long necks to the figurines with stumpy arms and legs with minimal facial features to figurines standing with crossed arms and showing prominent noses.

This culture was gradually absorbed by the Minoans of Crete and the author details the vestiges of the Great Minoan Royal Palaces discovered and excavated by Arthur Evans. Strangely enough, although the Minoans knew how to read and write as early as 2000 BC their language remains an enigma as it has not been deciphered. However, the many frescoes and vestiges that were recovered from palaces at Knossos, Malia, Kato Zakro, Haghia Triada, and Phaistos turned out to be very helpful in creating a picture of daily life and the overall organization of this civilization. Unfortunately, these palaces met dramatic and mysterious fates and the Minoan culture suddenly disappeared.

Inevitably, history leads us to the Lost Atlantis, once an island empire that sunk into the sea after the catastrophic eruption of the volcano on which it was built. What remains, according to the author, is the island of Thera (modern Santorini) and it has been established that its fate is linked to that of Crete. The volcano ashes buried Crete under a thick blanket that destroyed crops and fields for years. Among the cities recently unearthed from its ashes is the site of Akrotiri – a situation not unlike that of Pompeii. Thera itself has disclosed a great treasure of lively frescoes depicting people and animals, even an entire 20-ft-long maritime scene of the Libyan coast and a pastoral scene including a series of soldiers marching off towards the battlefield.

As one civilization disappears, another is on the rise and, in this case, it is the Myceneans who are taking over the power in the eastern Mediterranean, confirmed and illustrated by the masterpieces recovered from the Royal Graves by Heinrich Schliemann. Besides cities like Tiryns and Mycenae, attention is given to the beehive-shaped tomb known as the Treasure of Atreus which Schliemann took for belonging to Agamemnon. The many, mainly gold treasures found at Mycenae are well documented.

When this period of glory crumbled, Greece slumbered into the dark ages which lasted for three or four hundred years and are said to have been darker than the Middle Ages in Western Europe. Rooted in the once so glorious Mycenaean civilization, eventually, the Age of Pericles and Socrates emerged, laying the foundations of our Western civilization.

The book concludes with a great chart entitled The Emergence of Man (the actual subtitle of the book, and rightfully so) putting Geology, Archaeology, Time (in millions, then thousands, then hundreds of years ago), and Places/Inventions on one line.

It makes fascinating reading!

Happy Birthday!

Today, we are celebrating Alexander’s birthday. This is very unusual because we have only rare dates from antiquity that we can pin down and match to our modern calendar. Luckily for us, Alexander’s birthday is such an exception.

Unfortunately, we have no picture of the baby or of young Alexander. In fact, we only have one single picture of Alexander made during his lifetime, i.e. the tiny ivory head found in his father’s tomb at Vergina. All other statues, busts, reliefs, mosaics, intaglios, medallions and coins of Alexander the Great are either copies of contemporary works or creations from later centuries. His favorite sculptor Lysippos has transpired through later copies but none of Apelles’ paintings have survived. Imagine what it would mean to have just one of those originals!

The same goes for Alexander’s historians as nearly all contemporary literature is lost and we have to be content with “second hand” information gleaned by later authors who still had access to the original texts. My secret hope is that one day some of those original documents may be discovered among the Oxyrhynchus papyri that are still being deciphered.

Alexander truly keeps us busy, and rightfully so. Many happy returns, dear Alexander, may you live on forever in the memory of the world!

[Picture from Pinterest]

Archaeological research resumed at Pasargadae

It is always a pleasure to hear about new and update archaeological research anywhere, but that is especially the case for Pasargadae where French and Iranian scholars have joined hands.

Pasargadae, founded by Cyrus the Great in 546 BC,  was the first urban settlement of its time and as such became the prototype for a Persian city, implemented less than a century later by Darius I for the city of Persepolis, as explained in an earlier blog (see: In Search of the City of Persepolis).

There are no doubts about the presence of water channels and dams in and around Pasargadae, as well as about the location of the stone quarries. Moreover, some 300 graves have been identified belonging to different eras ranging from the Neolithic to the Achaemenid period. Latest excavations have even unearthed remains of a 20 km-long wall belonging to the Achaemenid era.

It has been established that the different royal buildings at Pasargadae were not united as a single palatial cluster but spread around in a royal garden of several hectares crossed by several stone waterways. This garden turned out to be only a small parcel in a larger park where houses for the general public, craftsmen and nobility lived in quarters of their own. This park included the Tower of Zendan (also called Salomon’s Prison) as part of a larger complex and the wide basin to the southeast that has suffered from eons of agricultural activities. The vast plateau that rises to the north is generally called “the Citadel” or Tall-i Takht and commands the site. It is in this area of approximately two hectares that about a dozen of sites have been located, one of which was clearly identified as Achaemenid, associated with an ancient canal of more than two kilometers long.

The water needed for the entire population and for irrigation purposes was skillfully led through the many stone channels, some of which have already been exposed. The exact working of this water system has not been clarified yet, neither do we know whether the water was diverted from the nearby Pulvar River or from another source.

Recent excavations have also revealed the foundations of a city gate, which apparently was inspired by similar constructions in Babylon since elements of its typical glazed walls with bas-reliefs of a dragon have been unearthed. It is thought that this gate was built before Darius I came to power, probably by Cyrus the Great in order to celebrate his victories.

More geophysical measurement and physical excavations are required to draw a coherent archaeological map of the entire area of Pasargadae. Let’s keep a close watch on future excavations!

[The map is from ArcheOrient]

[The picture of the wall is from Tavoos Art Magazine]

From Afghanistan into Bactria across the Hindu Kush

Before winter made the high passes of the Hindu Kush impassable, Bessus crossed the mountains north into Bactria, applying the policy of scorched earth in an attempt to make it impossible for Alexander to follow him. But evidently, he underestimated Alexander's determination and stubbornness! The ancients thought the Hindu Kush Mountain Range was a continuation of the Caucasus Mountains and alternatively used that name. They also called it the Paropamisadae, derived from the Persian word meaning as much as "peak over which the eagle cannot fly." The Hindu Kush is a nearly 1,000 km long barrier of high mountains running from Afghanistan to India, with the highest peak reaching 7,708 meters. This range, in fact, separates Central Asia from South Asia or India. In other words, it is a colossal barrier that cannot be underestimated.

It is late November 330 BC when Alexander marches through a series of narrow ravines that run from Kandahar, situated at 1100m via Ghazni, to Kabul at 1791 m. The modern road, which certainly takes shortcuts compared to Alexander's advance, tells us that the distance is slightly less than 500 km. Climbing in altitude to 3000 meters at times, the thin air and deep snow make progress very difficult. Under these circumstances, camp is made above the clouds where the nights are ungodly cold, and the land is covered with snow. The army suffers from snow blindness and frostbite. In the murky light, many lose their way and get stuck in snowdrifts as the wind howls through the narrows. Food, especially during the last leg of this journey, becomes a daily preoccupation, and the meager contribution of the natives hardly supports the Macedonian forces.

Alexander realizes that it is too late in the year to march across the Hindu Kush and settles his army near Begram at the junction of two rivers, the Cophen (Kabul) and the Panshir overlooking a broad plain framed by snowy peaks. Eventually, this city will become one of the many Alexandrias that patch the world map and will be called, very appropriately Alexandria-in-Caucasus. The army gets a breather for several months with abundant food and fodder available. Meanwhile, the snow falls heavily over the Hindu Kush, and in the heart of winter, the mountains are covered with a layer of twenty meters of snow.

Once again, one can only marvel at Alexander's highly skilled preparations and logistics. Of course, these lands were part of the Achaemenid Empire, and as such, they were well-documented and organized, but we must recognize Alexander's own intelligence and scouting parties. He had a choice of passes to pursue Bessus into Bactria, and it is generally agreed that he opted for the Khawak Pass. Although this road was the longest (75 kilometers), it also was the lowest (3,550m) and provided the best chances for forage. Here, he outsmarted Bessus, who had expected his enemy to take the shortest route, where he burnt all the local winter provisions behind him.

Despite careful planning, Alexander and his army approaching the Hindu Kush from the south had a strenuous journey. The column is divided into four sections, and the vanguard – the army engineers - had the most demanding job of clearing the way. They set out in early spring (sources vary from March to June), marching up the Panshir Valley, some 150 km north of Kabul, suffering from cold and lack of food. As soon as they entered the sheer walls of this gorge, they were confronted with thick crusts of frost as the sun hardly touched the bottom for a mere few minutes this time of year. They had to hack through the ice for many parts of this one-hundred-kilometer-long valley. With the first snow melting, rivers turning into torrents thunder down the gorges, making treacherous crossings. On top of that, scores of tributary valleys filled with debris and icy waters descend with deafening fury into the Panshir Valley.

It is said that the Macedonians carried a ten-day ration for an expedition that should take four days. Instead, it took Alexander and his army a full week to reach the summit and another ten days to descend into the fertile plains of Central Asia on the other side, i.e., seventeen grueling days in all.

It was not so much the distance that commanded the army's progress but the terrain itself. The mountain path varied considerably in width. At its narrowest parts, only three men could walk abreast: two infantrymen or one cavalry horse could pass at one time as the baggage train and pack animals formed a file alongside as that was the best – and probably the only – way for the men in accessing supplies in such a confined space. These were actual bottlenecks that held up the entire marching line. The cavalrymen would most probably dismount their horses to lead their mounts, especially on the ascent.

What is not recounted in our history books but has been reported by British troops who invaded Afghanistan in 1838 and 1878 are the extreme weather conditions in these parts. In his book The Afghan Campaign, Steven Pressfield paints vivid pictures of the Macedonian's fight with the elements, which comes very close to reality.

There is an intensity in the sunrise and sunset in these mountains that is quite unique. The light throws patches of blue and violet on the melting snow, described as a purple veil as misty as a breeze. Worse are the sudden storms that strike, alternating hail and snow. Hail stones rattle the soldiers' shields and helmets. The men seek shelter against the elements, but soon the trail turns into ice, making each step slippery and treacherous. The drenched army must have felt the frigid wind cutting right through their bones. They have to sleep where they are on the trail, sheltering against each other and their pack animals as best they can.

When finally the sun breaks through, men and mountains are shrouded in vapor and sweat. The danger of avalanches is very real. Rills and runnels turn into torrents plunging to the depth of the valley. At times, the sun blazes so fiercely that the men take off their cloaks. Yet, one hour later, the mild temperatures suddenly plummet as a new load of sleet and hail thunders down on them. Their path is then covered with scree and shingle, making each step precarious. Nearer to the top of the pass, they are confronted with glaciers strewn with fissures, crevasses, and cracks between the ice upheavals. Whatever part of their upwards trek, the underfoot is unstable and dangerous. On top of that, mountain sickness hits the men, who are disoriented and unable to keep any scarce food down. Every movement demands a monumental effort, and many go snow-blind. The companies start falling apart while the winds howl relentlessly and the icy cold hits the men to the core of their souls.

The Macedonians did not realize that the Panshir Valley is a beautiful valley that provides the locals with rich harvests of rice, barley, and beans. But all that is now hidden under the thick coat of snow, burying even the orchards of pistachios, apricots, pears, and mulberries. There is no wood to light a fire, and the men must settle for cold goat meat, frozen onions, and iced curd. 

Halfway up in the mountains, a rock, half a mile high, became identified with Prometheus, a hero from the most remarkable Greek legends that had always been placed in the Caucasus. Here, the tale was conveniently assimilated into the ancient Persian myth in which the eagle Sena had saved the hero Dastan. The story was a good incentive for the army to feel more at home instead of plowing along through these god-forbidden frozen mountains.

Alexander's army has been estimated at 64,000 troops and 10,000 cavalry horses with an additional number of followers of approximately 36,000, making it a total of 100,000 men to meander over these snowy paths. In his Logistics of the Macedonian Army, Donald Engels gives detailed calculations of the space occupied by each soldier, horseman, and camp follower, enabling him to match the marching time of seventeen days as mentioned by antique authors. This is a fascinating and trustworthy analysis.

According to Aristotle, one could see from the summit of the Caucasus all the way to the eastern edge of the world. Alexander and his Companions, who had shared his teaching, knew this story very well, but what they witnessed instead was not the end of the world but ridge after ridge of endless high mountains. How did this influence their opinion or esteem of Aristotle?

If the ascent was steep and challenging, the sufferings of the army reached intolerable heights during its descent. On the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush, the snow still filled the crags and masked all the features. Finding and following a trail was a nightmare. The horses had been fitted with snow boots to cope with the deep snow and slippery drifts. The men's clothing and foot gear were unsuitable for these harsh winter conditions. They trudged on with empty bellies, chewing on wood and wax as they struggled with chronic fatigue. The well-drilled and disciplined Macedonian army falters as avalanches break their column formations into many separate sections.

Famine spread throughout the army, and the few remaining amphorae of wine – a mere drop in the ocean – were sold at exorbitant prices, as was the honey. In the lower valleys, the soldiers could supplement their diet with brown trout from the rivers and some herbs, but there was no fodder for the animals, and orders were issued to slaughter them. However, since the scant scrub bushes were still buried deep under the snow, no firewood was available, and the meat had to be eaten raw.

Descending from the foothills in early June, Alexander made it without trouble to Kunduz and from there to the local capital of Bactra (Balkh in Afghanistan). Here, he allowed his troops to refresh in this relatively generous oasis. The army's spirits must have revived when terraced fields of rice and barley unfolded in front of them, and they could relish the sight of pear and plum trees. Here the days were warm and pleasant, and they found plenty of provisions stored within the city walls as ordered by Bessus to fit his scorched earth policy and now serving Alexander. This evidently was a real bonus as the city opened its gates to the new conqueror!

[Pictures are from Mountains of our Mind and from Place and See, except the first one, which is clearly from Oliver Stone's film Alexander]

Sunset Oasis by Bahaa Taher

Basically, my reason for buying Sunset Oasis by Bahaa Taher (ISBN 970-0-340-92488-4) was because the story was set in the Oasis of Siwah which was visited by Alexander nearly two thousand five hundred years ago. It also was warmly recommended by Olaf Kaper at the conclusion of his lecture in 2010 (see: Alexander the Great in Egypt. Lecture of 24 November 2010) - better late than never.

The scene of the novel evolves at the end of the 19^th century when Egypt is under British rule. The main figures are Mahmoud, who is appointed to replace the previously murdered District Commissioner at Siwah, and his Irish wife Catherine, who is very well versed in ancient languages and has a great interest in antiquities, particularly in Alexander the Great.

The book gives a fascinating description of their trip through the desert from Cairo to Siwah during which they are caught in a sandstorm, not unlike Alexander’s experience. Their welcome in Siwah is hostile and as if that were not enough, the locals themselves are split between Easterners and Westerners causing friction and problems of their own.

Bahaa Taher interestingly tells the story alternatively from the point of view of Mahmoud, that of Catherine, but also from that of the two main leaders Sheikh Yahya of the western clan and Sheikh Sabir of the eastern clan. There even is an entire chapter where Alexander the Great is giving his thoughts – not entirely without merit. As each person relates his own experiences and thoughts, we also get more information about what happened earlier in their lives and how they feel about it. It is striking to follow their “eastern” way of thinking and reacting (no wonder it collides with the British and in Mahmoud’s case with his Irish wife).

This is all fiction and we should remember that this is a novel, but nonetheless, it makes good reading and gives an excellent insight into a period of time about which little is known otherwise and certainly not from such a remote location as Siwah, close to the Libyan border. It is quite fascinating to follow.

An interesting chapter of Egypt’s history is being told here and for me, a not uninteresting approach to Alexander’s visit to the Oasis of Siwah.