Eyewitness accounts of Alexander’s life

Alexander's life and exploits are best known to us from the leading ancient historians, Arrian of Nicomedia, Diodorus Siculus, Curtius Rufus, and Plutarch. Their works, however, were written several centuries after the king's death and based mainly on books that are now mostly lost. 

Since these authors used a different source or a combination of the available material, we ended up having different versions of the same story, which, in turn, can be interpreted individually. 

The oldest eyewitness account was written by Anaximenes of Lampsacus, who lived from c. 380 until 320 BC. It is highly probable that his On Alexander, which included the Battle of Issus and more, was published during Alexander's lifetime. After all, he accompanied the king to Persia. Except for some fragments, the book is lost. Upon the invitation of Philip II, Anaximenes lived at the Royal Court of Pella and wrote the king's history, Philippica.  

Callisthenes of Olynthus (c.360 – c.327 BC) was a nephew of Aristotle, upon whose recommendation he was appointed to become Alexander's Court historian. He accompanied the king to Asia, where he kept the official records of Alexander's expeditions. Around 330 BC, he wrote his Deeds of Alexander up to the Battle of Gaugamela or possibly the death of Darius in 330 BC. In 327 BC, Callisthenes was implicated in a conspiracy to assassinate Alexander. He was imprisoned and died seven months later. Except for a few fragments, the book is lost. 

Ptolemy, undoubtedly the best-known eyewitness, wrote his account between 320 and 283 BC. Ptolemy had grown up at Philip's court and became one of Alexander's generals to join him on his Asian campaign. As a result, his book covered the entire reign of Alexander, particularly from the military point of view. Arrian widely used Ptolemy's history, which he thought was very trustworthy. Unfortunately, this account is also lost, except for fragments. After Alexander's death, Ptolemy became king of Egypt and founded the Ptolemaic dynasty that ended with Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. 

Very shortly after Alexander's death, Nearchus of Crete wrote his Indike about his Indian campaigns. Nearchus had been with Alexander from the beginning. As the king's admiral, he would have led the fleet to the Gates of Heracles – a plan that never materialized. Only fragments of this book have reached us; it is otherwise lost (see: The Ephemerides of Alexander's Expedition by C.A. Robinson). 

Onesicritus, Alexander's helmsman sailing down the Indus, also wrote a now-lost book, How Alexander was educated, shortly after the king's death. A philosopher himself, he presented Alexander as such. Onesicritus was often in competition with Nearchus, and his book had a reputation for not being reliable. Few fragments survived (see: The Ephemerides of Alexander's Expedition by C.A. Robinson). 

After Alexander's death, his chamberlain Chares also wrote an eyewitness account, Histories of Alexander. He covered the later years of Alexander's reign. This book is lost, except for some fragments. 

Aristobulus of Cassandreia, in turn, covered the entire reign of Alexander in a kind of autobiography. The book, whose title is unknown, was written shortly after the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Except for some fragments, it is lost. Aristobulus was one of the king's engineers and was put in charge of restoring Cyrus' tomb in Pasargadae. 

The most essential account was the Ephemerides, the Royal Diaries, the 'official' daily report that Eumenes of Cardia supposedly kept. He was appointed Alexander's personal secretary after having served Philip previously. There are serious doubts about the authenticity of these Royal Diaries because rumors circulate that the original document was later rewritten. Instead of having a book from Alexander's lifetime, it may well have become a forgery of a later date. The original is lost, except for fragments. The Ephemerides led to the Alexander Romance. 

The oldest known version of the Alexander Romance dates probably from the 3rd century AD, and its author is unknown, although it has been attributed to Pseudo-Callisthenes. The name has nothing to do with the Callisthenes mentioned above, who died before Alexander. The earliest version of the Romance was composed in Alexandria shortly after Alexander's death and related the story of his life, spiced with many fantastic tales that never happened. Over the centuries, the Romance was translated, truncated, embellished, and circulated throughout Europe and Asia. 

This list is incomplete; we know many other authors only by name. Their work is all lost, except for fragments or quotes by other historians. 

It is hard to believe that so few would have written about Alexander's exploits among the thousands of rulers, philosophers, generals, artists, and even ordinary soldiers who met him. The Persians and the Indians must have shared their encounter with Alexander, yet barely any such documents surfaced. 

The hard reality is that barely any fragment of writing from Alexander's lifetime has survived. The most famous man in history would have disappeared had it not been for men like Arrian, Diodorus, Curtius, and Plutarch.

[Papyrus from Macedonian Archaeology Quota]

An introduction to Leptis Magna in Libya

Alexander's presence in North Africa has been limited to Egypt, which in his days included Cyrene in modern Libya (see: Cyrene, founded by the Greeks). The king knew of the Phoenician colonies and Carthage further west, but they were not part of his plan then. 

My visit to Libya happened later, too, because the impressive ruins of Leptis Magna are far too Roman to fit into my Alexander picture. 

However, the opportunity to travel to Libya arose just before the outbreak of the Arab Spring. With hindsight, I've never been so lucky! Not only because of the timing of my visit but also because it was here at Leptis Magna that I really understood what the grandeur of Rome meant. It is an impression that the ruins of Rome itself cannot give us. 

Leptis Magna or Lepcis Magna is located on the coast of the Mediterranean, 120 km east of Tripoli. It was founded by the Carthaginians around the 7^th century BC at the mouth of the Wadi Lebda and at the end of the caravan route from the Sahara. Grain and olive oil were the primary export product, but wild animals from the hinterland were also traded and shipped. 

Carthage was involved in successive fights over the fertile lands of Sicily, facing the locals and the growing power of Rome. Carthage and Rome fought each other during the three Punic Wars, which ended with the total destruction of Carthage by the Romans in 146 BC.   

Thanks to the generosity of the local merchants, Leptis Magna already had numerous public buildings from the time of Augustus and Tiberius (first century AD).  

By the end of the second century, many Africans held high positions in Rome, and it is said that 15% of the Roman senators came from North Africa. Emperor Septimius Severus, who ruled from 193 to 211 AD, was born in Leptis Magna, and he wanted to build a city of imperial allure, a second Rome. 

He was an avid traveler and had visited every corner of his realm, casually crushing a rebellion here and conquering more land there. He spent the winter of 202-203 here in Leptis Magna. Septimius Severus had become wealthy from the goods he had confiscated from his enemies and could afford to undertake major construction projects. The best architects and sculptors of the time were brought here to build a new forum and a huge temple dedicated to the gods protecting the city. The harbor was expanded, the water supply was improved, and a richly decorated Triumphal Arch put Leptis Magna on the map. He brought peace and prosperity; the city counted at least 60 to 80,000 inhabitants in his heyday. Septimius Severus could afford some eccentricity because the population was on his side since he had granted them the ius italicum, an exemption from local taxes.

Despite all the prestige, Leptis Magna's days were numbered. The opulence of its people did not sit well with the Roman aristocracy and created a lot of envy. As a result,  most of the African property was confiscated, and soon decline set in. 

The city was seriously damaged by the earthquake of 262 AD. Emperor Diocletian ( see: Price list established by Emperor Diocletian) tried to restore order in the 3rd century by promoting Leptis Magna to the capital of the Province of Tripolitania. Yet, another devastating earthquake ravaged the city in 306 AD. 

With the Fall of the Roman Empire, Tripolitania remained part of the Western Roman Empire, i.e., under Rome's control, while the Cyrenaica was added to the Eastern Empire, i.e., Constantinople. By that time, the harbor of Leptis Magna silted up, and the Vandals moved from Rome to settle in the area. This definitely sealed the fate of the city. 

The Byzantine Empire took over and constructed the city wall, and many large buildings were converted into churches. After the Arab invasion in the 7th/8th century, Leptis Magna was still inhabited. Sadly, the grand city never reached its heyday from the 2nd and 3rd century AD. After the 11th century, Leptis Magna was abandoned and gradually disappeared into the sand. 

However, the magic lived on, and from the 17^th century onward, columns from Leptis Magna found their way to Europe. Versailles was a destination, together with the church of St-Germain-des-Prés in Paris. The Temple of the Gods, built in Windsor Great Park in 1826, has nine columns from Leptis Magna. 

In the 1920s and 1930s, Italian archaeologists excavated the site extensively, and the most beautiful artifacts were transferred to the Museum in Tripoli. Sadly, more recent diggings are at a standstill because of the political instability in Libya.

[Continue reading Leptis Magna or what Rome must have looked like - Part I]

Confusion about the name of Dardanus

As a general rule, the tribes living north of ancient Macedonia were known as Illyrians (see: A closer look at Illyria) and more to the east as Thracians (see: Thracian treasures at Alexander’s northern border). Some of those tribes are mentioned by name in Alexander’s conquest of Asia. 

I previously wrote about the Paeonians (see: About the Paeonians), and I want to concentrate on the Dardanians this time. 

[Damastion coin 380-360 BC - Picture from Military Wiki-Fandom]

King Bardylis I was the founder of the Dardanian Kingdom, which corresponds to modern Kosovo. In 393 BC, he dethroned King Amyntas III of Macedonia to place one of his henchmen in his place. Macedonia’s king Perdiccas III decided to take the Dardanian-occupied territory back, but he was defeated and killed. As the new king, Philip II, his brother, married Bardylis’ granddaughter, Audata (see: Start of Philip's reign - Macedonia forged by Philip II). He killed old Bardylis on the battlefield in 358 BC. 

On his return home from the Danube campaign, Alexander faced the Illyrian revolt led by Bardylis’ son, Cleitus. The king defeated Cleitus at Pelium (see: Alexander’s psychological warfare), and the Dardanians were generally absorbed by the Illyrians and are no longer mentioned in history. 

However, a very different Dardanus is known as the son of Zeus. He was the mythical founder of Dardanus or Dardania on the Hellespont. Dardanus’ grandson Tros gave his name to the Trojans, and his son Ilus founded the city of Ilium, modern Troy. King Priam, the last king of Troy, would trace his lineage back to Dardanus. A pedigree worthy of any king!

Was the First Emperor inspired by Alexander?

In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huangdi became the First Emperor of China, a country he had unified in 230 BC. He ruled as Emperor for nine years until his death at 49 years old in 210 BC. In comparison, Alexander’s campaign in Asia lasted approximately as long, from 334 until 223 BC.

[Qin Shi Huang statue]

The list of Qin’s achievements is long and can easily be compared to Alexander’s (see: The First Emperor, China’s Terracotta Army and Alexander the Great). Ultimately, they both instated one language, one currency, one law for all, and probably one and the same standard weights and measures. Qin established one system of government and one language, whereas Alexander left Hellenism to the world with Greek as the lingua franca for the next one thousand years. Qin built roads, canals, and the famous Great Wall, whereas Alexander built still-existing cities and trade centers. 

The comparison between the two rulers may extend even further to include their armies. They both put their infantry at the center with archers in front of them (Alexander also used sling shooters). Chinese arrows had very efficient bronze spear points. In both armies, the infantry was flanked by cavalry, which the Chinese reinforced with chariots. The cavalry encircled the enemy in the pincer movement and pinned down their lines to be annihilated. 

Losses among Qin’s infantry were high since they wore no protective outfits, which was thought to slow them down. They carried, however, an all-purpose spear with bronze ends and a sword. A man’s life in China did not count as opposed to Alexander, where every Macedonian was valued. They were lesser in number but well-equipped and disciplined. 

Overall, it makes me wonder how much Qin (or his generals) knew about Alexander’s tactics and warfare. It appears to be far more than we may suspect. The news of Alexander’s conquests far into the Ferghana Valley and India’s Punjab will have traveled further east during the one hundred years that separate these rulers. Merchants and travelers inevitably spread the news of Alexander’s successful campaigns. 

It should be noted that the Tomb of Qin Shi Huangdi remains hidden under an earth pyramid 76 meters tall. Chinese authorities are not inclined to excavate the site, either out of respect or fear. 

[Mausoleum of Qin Shi Huanghi]

The site of Alexander’s Tomb has not been found, even though he was buried in the Palace of Alexandria in Egypt. Nobody knows where his remains are hidden or were moved to. 

Seuthes III, king of Thracia

Seuthes III, King of Thracia or, more precisely, of the Odrysian tribe, caught my attention after seeing pictures of his splendid bronze head. The work is of such high quality that it could easily fit the heyday of Hellenism or Renaissance. Some scholars claim that it was made by Lysippos or in his style. It emanates a sense of power as the face stares back with alabaster and glass-paste-inlaid eyes glancing from under the eyelashes and brows made of copper strips. 

The head of Seuthes was found in his tomb, not far from Kazanlak in modern Bulgaria. The gravesite is one of the many in the Valley of the Thracian Kings and not far from the so-called Tomb of Kazanlak (see: Valley of the Thracian Kings), initially attributed to King Seuthes. 

Seuthes’ rule is roughly dated to 331-300 BC. The news of his ascent to the throne reached Alexander after he set out for Asia in 334 BC. Antipater certainly informed him of this new power on his northern borders. The King of Thracia outlived Alexander (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara, Greece) and got involved in the War of the Diadochi. 

Seuthes rebelled against the arrival of Lysimachos, who inherited Thracia after Alexander’s death. In the early stage, Lysimachos occupied only the coastal region, but soon his ambition brought him to conquer the hinterland. He faced Seuthes in combat twice, and eventually, Lysimachos established his authority, and they signed a peace treaty. 

Seuthes has preserved his autonomy, although history does not focus much on him after 310 BC. Coins reveal that he still ruled in 297 BC when Cassander of Macedonia died. Another source is the inscription from Seuthopolis, tentatively dated between the 290s and the 280s BC. It mentions Seuthes III, his wife or widow Berenice (possibly a member of Lysimachos’ family), and their sons, Hebryzelmis, Teres, Satocus, and Sadalas, treating with King Spartocus of Cabyle. Cabyle had been conquered by Philip II in 341 BC and populated with rebellious Macedonians. 

King Seuthes built his capital of Seuthopolis around 320 BC (see: Philip’s Macedonia also included today’s Bulgaria). It was a well-planned city whose remains were flooded after the construction of a dam on the Tundzha River in 1956. 

Initially, the king’s tomb was part of a monumental temple inside the Kosmatka Mound, one of the largest in Thracia. The mound from the second half of the 5th century BC is approximately 20 meters high with a diameter of 90 meters! It contains a corridor, a circular domed room, and a small chamber made of granite blocks. The space may have been used as a sanctuary for Orphic rites. Shortly before the death of Seuthes, the construction was entirely renovated, and the small chamber was converted into a funerary room. It was closed with a two-folding marble door, not unlike what we know from Macedonian tombs. After Seuthes’ funeral, the access to the circular room and the grave chamber was walled; the corridor was with stones and soil. The very façade had been carefully buried under the mound. 

Seuthes’ tomb was discovered in 2004 and yielded an impressive number of artifacts. In the passageway, archaeologists found the skeleton of a horse. Inside the funerary chamber was a full suit of armor: a bronze helmet showing a picture of Nike, a pair of greaves, remains of a leather breastplate, two iron swords, and ten spearheads. Also in the room were two iron strigils, gold and silver kylices, a bronze and a silver phial, a pair of scissors (how unique!), a silver and two alabaster jugs, a box with silver and bronze jewels, and three wine amphorae from Thasos one of which was still sealed. Smaller items were also recovered, such as golden horse trappings with pictures of humans, animals, and plants and sword sheath decorations. On the funeral bed, they found a golden oak wreath, otherwise known from Macedonian graves. 

It is noteworthy that the helmet and some of the silver objects carried the inscription ΣΕΥΘΟΥ, connecting the tomb to King Seuthes III – also confirmed by the gold coins and the bronze bust of the owner found some seven meters in front of the façade. 

We can only dream about the wealth still hidden inside the many mounds of Bugaria’s Valley of the Thracian Kings.

[Top picture from Wikipedia, Natl Museum of Sofia. 
Second picture from Wikipedia, Rossitza Ohridska-Olson. 
Bottom picture from http://www.kroraina.com/thracia/gk/index.html]