Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 4, the Doge’s Palace

Who would check every detail of the Palace of the Doge in Venice, except the dedicated scholar? None of the millions of tourists has the patience or dedication to investigate, beyond the general overview. 

[San Marco Square, Doge's Palace on the left]

The Palace was built in the 12^th century. The concept is atypical, displaying a smooth wall with a geometric pattern of white and pink stone, which rests upon two levels of colonnades. At ground level this is an arched white stone colonnade; on the first floor, it is a loggia enhanced with quatrefoil openings in white Istrian stone. The top of the Palace is crowned with white lace stonework merlons as seen in Persepolis and Central Asia. 

The capitals on top of the columns are all different and have many stories to tell. They serve not only as decorations but also as examples of historical, moral, and political teaching. We will recognize biblical scenes, Christian virtues, medieval symbolism, the Twelve Signs of the Zodiac, aspects of everyday life, and people of the world. 

[Doge’s Palace, south facade, Alexander the Great, ca. 1350 from Engramma]

It is in this last group that Alexander the Great pops up with the inscription ALEXANDER MACEDONIAE REX as one of the Kings of the World. He is to be found on top of the fifth column counting from the Ponte della Paglia. The picture from Engramma is not the best but is the only one available. It will have to do…

Seminar on Alexander the Great

Jona Lendering, whose name is well-known from his Livius internet site, will give a seminar on Alexander the Great in the Netherlands. This is wonderful news for the Dutch-speaking people and in particular those who do not read the otherwise widely available English literature.

[Picture from Livius]

The event will take place in Wormerveer 14 kilometers northwest of Amsterdam in four separate lectures each time at 1:30 pm on Thursdays from 26 September to 3, 10, and 17 October 2024 at the Buurtcentrum de Lorzie. The standard ticket sells for 120 euros.

For more details, please click on Cursus: Alexander de Grote

Persepolis as it was 2500 years ago

In the frame of the unique exhibition Persia: Ancient Iran and the Classical World in 2022, I shared several informative links from the Getty Museum about Persepolis in particular (see: Fascinating Persepolis). 

Last month, the Getty added a wonderful YouTube reconstruction of the Palace of Persepolis as if you visited the plateau during its heyday with all the walls, columns, and colorful paintings to welcome us - the Palace as Alexander and his Macedonians have seen it! 

Those who had the immense pleasure of visiting the site will easily get their bearings while the others can let their imagination run free! Enjoy!

“To the strongest”

“To the strongest” are the last words Alexander pronounced on his deathbed in Babylon when pressed to name his successor. 

His Companions and generals were obviously panicking at the thought of being left behind so many miles away from Macedonia without their king to guide them. They desperately needed him. 

Ever since he became king in 336 BC Alexander had shown his commanders the way and led his men by example. He certainly did not expect to die at the age of 33 and not in his bed. How could he have foreseen to be incapacitated and unable to be his own self? 

The only person who had always been at his side and enjoyed his full confidence had died the previous year. Hephaistion had been officially appointed as his Chiliarch, his second in command. The sudden death of his dearest friend left him in total disarray and maddened by grief. He was truly alone at a time when he had to make the hardest decision of his life and elect a successor. “Who, Alexander? Tell us who!” are the words Oliver Stone put in the mouth of Ptolemy. How appropriate! 

“To the strongest” has often been understood as a weak and evading statement although, in reality, Alexander’s last words are one final proof of his genius! Had he not been so much afflicted by his illness and impaired by the high fever, he would have found the strength to elaborate a solution to the Succession with his close Companions. He would likely have appointed Perdiccas. Even so, Alexander’s decision may have lost its power two years onward and the commanders would have taken the matter into their own hands anyway.

Of course, everyone around the king’s deathbed still hoped to be appointed and hear his name called out. However, matters were not as straightforward as one might think. On the one hand, he had to name an heir since as King he needed a successor, and on the other hand, as commander in chief of his army, he had to appoint a capable military leader. 

At this point, his most experienced generals were Craterus and Perdiccas. Yet, Craterus was in Cilicia taking 10,000 veterans back to Macedonia with Alexander’s instructions to replace Antipater as Regent in Pella. Perdiccas was in Babylon and took the king’s succession in his hands. 

Roxane was pregnant but the child was not born yet and there was no guarantee it would be a boy. Alexander had never recognized Heracles, his son by Barsine. In any case, Roxane’s son and Heracles were too young to rule and the generals would have to choose a Regent pending their coming of age. The next best option was to push Arrhideus forward. He was Alexander’s simple-minded half-brother and not capable of becoming the de facto ruler. As a result, Perdiccas was elected Regent at the Partition of Babylon. 

This implied, however, that he would rule over Alexander’s Companions and generals. Perdiccas’ success was short-lived though and in 321 BC he was side-lined at Triparadeisus as the commanders decided to divide the kingdom among themselves. When Perdiccas escorted Alexander’s remains to be buried in Macedonia, Ptolemy high-jacked the mummified body and took it to Egypt. In a desperate attempt to recover his king’s remains, Perdiccas failed totally to march his men across the Nile. His losses were so excessive that his soldiers revolted and killed him. 

These were uncertain times for all the parties involved in the Succession Wars. They all had the ambition to rule over Alexander’s Empire and felt equally qualified to do so but none shared Alexander’s vision. Ultimately, they eliminated each other until the empire was divided between Ptolemy, Seleucos, Antigonus, and Cassander (see: Dividing the Spoils. The War for Alexander’s Empire by Robin Waterfield).

None of the great men who fought alongside Alexander for almost twelve years emerged as the strongest. They all had learned a lot but none could come close to Alexander’s charisma and exceptional genius.

A nearly perfect head of Zeus from Aphrodisias

Aphrodisias was known for its skillful sculptors throughout the Roman Empire. They took advantage of the nearby marble quarries that provided a typical medium-grained variation of the readily available material. Whoever drives through Asia Minor cannot miss the often colorful patches of marble quarries that dot the landscape.  

[Picture is from Arxaia Ellinika]

The many monuments excavated in Aphrodisias expose the great craftsmanship of its builders, embellished with reliefs and statues as testified by the latest find. 

It is a nearly perfect, colossal marble head of Zeus recovered about 50 meters west of the famous Temple of Aphrodite. It is 66 centimeters high, i.e., larger than life-size. The deep relief of the god’s hair and beard indicates that the head belongs to the 2^nd-3^rd century AD. At the same time, it makes Zeus’ face look more realistic. 

For the history of Aphrodisias, please read my earlier blog, Aphrodisias, the city of Aphrodite (Turkey).

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 3, the Pala d’Oro

Finding Alexander on the Pala d’Oro, the high altar of the Basilica San Marco in Venice is extremely difficult. 

[Pala d'Oro from Saint Mark's Basilica]

The golden altarpiece is a unique work of Byzantine enamel thought to be commissioned in 976. It acquired its present shape and size (three meters wide and two meters high) in 1345. It is made of gold and silver and counts 187 enamel plaques alternating with nearly 2,000 gemstones. 

The enamels in the top part of the Pala d’Oro are a group of six images representing the Life of Christ arranged around Archangel Michael. The bottom section tells the life of St Mark. A central picture of Christ Pantocrator is surrounded by the Four Evangelists and flanked by twelve Apostles, six on either side. 

Hardly noticeable in this opulence of precious metal and colorful stones are the small roundels and busts of Saints in the surrounding cornice. 

Of particular interest are the six enamel Byzantine plaques of 4.4 cm in diameter at the very bottom dated to the 11^th century. 

They depict three scenes of falconers on horseback (as in Eastern iconography): 

The stylized image of Alexander the Great elevatus ad aerem (lifted into the skies) as seen in the relief on the north façade of the Basilica San Marco in Venice:

The Tree of Life, a representation of the world, is seen as a paradisiacal garden. In the center is a tree surrounded by two serpents, but also the rivers that circumscribe the emerged lands. It is the world that, in the ancient and medieval versions of the Romance, Alexander sees from above, in the cosmic vision that concludes his mystical flight. 

And a bust of Emperor Constantine of which I have no picture. 

There is nothing to link these themes together except perhaps that the enamels were gifts from the Imperial Court of Constantinople to the Doge of Venice. They were interpreted as divine inspiration through the centuries from the days of Alexander the Great to the Roman Emperor Constantine, the Byzantine emperors, and finally to the Venetian Republic. 

The six roundels, in fact, summarize the vision of Doge Dandolo to make the Venetian Republic the true and rightful heir of the Roman Empire. It is not surprising that he turned the Pala d’Oro into a most splendid centerpiece of the Basilica. 

It is remarkable to find Alexander still present as Kosmokrator (Ruler of the World) some 1700 years after his untimely death. Even today, we greatly underestimate his wide contribution to mankind, which is way beyond his military and political achievements.

[Pictures of the enamel roundels are from Engramma]
[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 4, the Doge's Palace]

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 2, from Constantinople

Alexander is also featured on the north façade of the Basilica di San Marco in Venice. Here is a relief taken from Constantinople after the sack and looting by the Crusaders in 1204 together with the bronze horses that found a prominent place above the entrance to the Basilica. 

[Alexander lifted into the skies – from Engramma]

Looking at the photograph in the article published by Engramma, my thoughts immediately go back to a similar picture of Alexander in the Cathedral of Otranto in southern Italy where he is part of a huge mosaic floor created between 1163 and 1165 (see: Alexander’s presence in Magna Graecia). 

In the Venetian relief, Alexander is seated on a chariot, which is not clearly visible in Otranto's mosaic, pulled by winged griffins who lift him up into the skies. The motif is said to be very common in the 12^th-13^th century. 

Initially, the relief was not a decorative piece but a precious trophy like the famous bronze quadriga and other artifacts used to represent the transfer of the symbolic continuity from Constantinople to Venice. The ambition of the Venetian Doge was boundless as he strived to move in Alexander’s footsteps as ruler of the world. Nothing less …!

[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 3, the Pala d'Oro]

Alexander’s presence in Venice – Part 1, his tomb

It should not come as a surprise to find traces and testimonies of the glory of Alexander in Venice, Italy, centrally located between East and West. It is remarkable though that it dates to so many centuries after his death! 

The first time I heard of Alexander being linked to Venice was in Andrew Chugg’s book, The Lost Tomb of Alexander the Great. During his investigation, the author found a stone in the Cloister of Sant’Apollonia displaying a well-preserved relief of a Macedonian star together with remains of military panoply. 

In his next book, The Quest for the Tomb of Alexander the Great Chugg develops his findings leading to the time where the worship of Alexander as the Founder of Alexandria is curiously overlapped by St Mark, the Founder of the Alexandrian Church shortly after 391 AD. This coincides with the disappearance of Alexander’s corpse and the first appearance of St Mark’s tomb. In 828 AD, the corpse of St Mark was abducted by the Venetians, who on 8^th October 1094 placed it in a tomb in the crypt of the Basilica of San Marco in Venice. Because of the repeated flooding, the tomb became at risk in its downstairs crypt, and in 1811 it was moved to the high altar on the main floor where it still stands today. 

The key question is: are these remains indeed those of St Mark or could they belong to Alexander the Great, swapped somewhere back in the obscure days of the 4^th century AD? 

A simple visual examination could give enough clues to assert whether or not this body is Alexander’s, based on the wounds he received during his life. Another possibility would be a facial reconstruction that would faithfully disclose the face of either Mark or Alexander. A stunning thought! But the Church does not allow any access to the corpse or any form of examination whatsoever. 

[Cloister of Sant'Apollonia, shield with Macedonian star and remains of panoply]

Returning to the artifacts at the Cloister of Sant’Apollonia, they were recovered when the corpse was moved from the crypt to the present location in the Basilica. One stone of 140x120x30 cm displays a Macedonian shield of 70 cm in diameter, i.e., life-size. Besides the typical relief of the 8-pointed starburst shield, the relief shows a Macedonian sword, the kopis, and a pair of greaves. How or why it ended up at the Cloister remains a mystery despite Chugg’s insistence on an independent thorough examination of the stone! 

The material itself holds its secret. An early analysis in 1998 established that the bloc must have belonged to a large Hellenistic monument dated to the 3^rd or early 2^nd century BC. The article from “La Rivista di Engramma” n. 76, December 2009, describes it as decoration for a Roman commemorative, honorary, or funerary monument honoring Alexander the Great from the 1^st century BC. It also defines the stone as Aurisina, after a marble quarry about 15 kilometers from Trieste. This origin is hard to reconcile with a sarcophagus imported from Alexandria. 

For now, the mystery remains intact.

[Continue reading Alexander's presence in Venice - Part 2, from Constantinople]

Inventions by Hero of Alexandria

The best-known works by Hero of Alexandria are his Pneumatica and Mechanica in which he described how “Automata” actually works. “Automata” is a Greek word meaning as much as “self-moving”, “self-acting” or “self-willed” which is familiar in our modern world. It may be debated whether the inventions were truly his or if he collected them from other sources available at the Library of Alexandria.  

[Reconstruction inside of Alexandria's Library]

Hero lived in the 1^st century BC, and his Pneumatica was widely read far into the Middle Ages. More than 100 manuscripts have survived, illustrating how ancient texts can live a long life. The earliest surviving copy is kept in the Bibliotheca Marciana in Venice, Italy, and dates from the 13^th century, i.e., 1400 years after it was initially written! 

The inventor’s Mechanica has survived thanks to one single Arabic translation made between 862 and 866 AD, preserved at the Library of Leiden University, the Netherlands. 

His most striking invention, in my eyes, is his steam engine, which I already developed in a separate post, A steam engine in antiquity. 

Another of his inventions is a coin-operated dispenser for Holy Water in Egyptian temples. Worshippers who visited the temple needed this water for their ritual washing. Dropping a coin into the slot of the dispenser would set a chain reaction into motion. The weight of the coin would tilt a metal lever which would open a valve through which the water flowed into the cup held by the worshiper. As the coin slipped off the lever, the valve was closed. This invention eventually led to the modern vending machine. 

Hero took his ingenuity one step further when he conceived a series of mechanisms for the Greek theater. He orchestrated a mechanical puppet show using a system of ropes, knots, and simple machines operated by a rotating cylindrical cogwheel. To add the sound of thunder, he used metal balls released at timed intervals onto a hidden drum. 

Another marvel Hero described in detail is the automatic temple door opener (see: Automatic doors, a 2,000-year-old invention), another way for the priests to collect money. 

He also invented the first wind-powered organ using a small wind wheel, probably not unlike the windmills used by the early modern colonists in Australia and the American Far West. The wind wheel powered a piston and forced air through the organ pipes creating sounds resembling a flute.

This mechanism includes the ‘hydraulis,’ which first appeared in Alexandria also, said to have been built by Ctesibius. It was operated by compressed air channeled through a container of water to equalize the pressure. A row of pipes of different lengths produced the sound. More control was acquired with the keyboard-wind instrument as replicated at the Museum of Dion, Greece (see: Close encounter with an ancient Water-Organ). 

I’d like to pick out one more of Hero's inventions from a list that may have counted up to 80, the syringe. The device is much larger than the one we know today since its purpose was entirely different. It was used to control the delivery of air or fluid with precision. Yet the principle of the antique version is the same: the plunger forced the liquid or air out in a controllable quantity. Something to remember next time we get an injection!

We will never know if the concept of creating a center of knowledge in Alexandria was Alexander’s idea or a later addition by Ptolemy. In my opinion, the concept was too vast for Ptolemy while it would perfectly fit Alexander’s thrive to melt East and West together as initiated at the Susa Wedding. 

We cannot imagine the impact of the Museum of Alexandria and its Library on the world’s history. Philosophers, mathematicians, botanists, writers, poets, historians, physicists, anatomists, astrologists, investors, and engineers from all over the then-known world would mingle and exchange their scholarship and wisdom. No other city in the world has ever reunited so many bright minds, not even in the Renaissance. Today’s digital world is the first to come close to attaining this level of universality.

Remembering Alexander’s birthday

We can be certain that Alexander never expected a hoard of tetradrachms with his effigy to be found and cherished nearly 2,500 years after his death. If that is not a worthy birthday gift, what is? 

This find dates from 2017, when a farmer recovered the coins from his land near Batman, on the confluence of the Tigris River and the Batman River in southeastern Turkey. The coins were all Alexander tetradrachms minted in the period between 332 and 322 BC. 

The coins fell into the hands of a Turkish collector, who said the hoard was complete although no container was recorded. Since then, all the coins have been sold and disappeared from the radar. This means we only have the collector’s word for the information that has transpired. 

The coins were minted in several of the 25 known locations such as Amphipolis, Aradus (Syria), Side, Sidon, and to a larger extent (one-third) in Babylonia. 

The Amphipolis mint was very active during the regency of Antipater, although the silver did not originate from local mines. The majority of the precious metal came from looting and by far the largest amounts were collected by Alexander from the Achaemenid Treasuries in Babylon, Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Ecbatana (see: Harpalos’ mismanagement or is it Alexander’s?). We will remember that the king borrowed money when he started his invasion of Asia and took the bullion from the cities as he conquered them. 

The Batman hoard may have belonged to one of the Greek and/or Balkan mercenaries Alexander disbanded in late 325 or early 324 BC, or to one of his Macedonian veterans he sent home after the mutiny at Opis in 324 BC. This last group of 10,000 veterans led by Craterus was moving slowly through Cilicia when the news of Alexander’s death reached them. In antiquity, the Batman region was on the border between the satrapies of Armenia and Mesopotamia, not far from Cilicia. For that reason, it makes sense to link the hoard to the demobilized soldiers commanded by Craterus. 

It is important to realize that the Alexander coins were minted according to the standard Attic drachma of 4.3 grams. It has been estimated that between 333 and 290 BC, approximately 60 million tetradrachms were produced (see: A few words about Alexander mints and coins). More importantly, every soldier, veteran, and foreigner was totally familiar with Alexander’s picture and trusted the value of the coin bearing his image. For a long time, coins with Alexander's image kept circulating because his veteran soldiers were used to receiving their pay in tetradrachms!  

It remains questionable whether or how many of the 60,000,000 tetradrachms will ever be found. As the coins keep surfacing, we have to thank Alexander for his long-lasting legacy. By wishing him “Many Happy Returns” we truly pay tribute to the timeless legacy he has left us. 

Not all Seven Wonders of the World are the same

We like to believe that the list of the Seven Wonders of the World in antiquity was well-established but that is not entirely correct. 

In the 1^st century BC, Diodorus mentions them by name: the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the statue of Zeus in Olympia, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesos, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, the Colossus of Rhodes and the Lighthouse of Alexandria. This is the list we follow nowadays, but the importance of each monument has been subject to personal taste and appreciation of its time. 

Well before Diodorus, many writers had their opinions on the matter. The oldest known is, for instance, Herodotus who, in the 5^th century BC does not mention the Hanging Gardens of Babylon but provides a very detailed description of the Walls of Babylon built with baked bricks cemented together with bitumen. The ramparts were 72 kilometers long, 10 meters thick, and 22 meters high! A striking feature is that the top of the wall was wide enough for two four-horse chariots to pass each other. The intermittent towers were 27 meters high. 

Callimachus of Cyrene, who lived in the 3^rd century BC, chose to include the Ishtar Gate of Babylon – a marvel that has been reconstructed inside the Pergamon Museum in Berlin (see: A mental reconstruction of Alexander’s triumphal march into Babylon). 

Philo of Byzantium in 225 BC, lists the Walls of Babylon, but not the Lighthouse of Alexandria which was not built yet. He said he had actually seen the Hanging Gardens but omitted to situate them in Babylon. Their existence remains questionable and there still is an unconfirmed theory these gardens were in Niniveh. They were described as vaulted terraces, raised one above another, and resting upon cube-shaped pillars. These were hollow and filled with earth to allow trees of the largest size to be planted. The pillars, the vaults, and the terraces were constructed of baked brick and bitumen. The Gardens were initiated by King Nebuchadnezzar II around 575 BC. Philo tells of the Statue of Zeus by Phidias in Olympia, the bronze Colossus of Rhodes featuring Helios (the Sun), and the Temple of Artemis in Ephesos. He further includes the Tomb of King Mausolos in Halicarnassus, and the Pyramids of the Giza plateau, not singling out the Great Pyramid. 

Antipater of Sidon, who lived in the 2^nd/1^st century BC writes that he laid eyes on the ‘walls of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots’, and the Hanging Gardens; the statue of Zeus in Olympia, the Colossus of the Sun in Rhodes, the huge achievement of the high pyramids in Giza, the vast tomb of Mausolos at Halicarnassus; and the Temple of Artemis in Ephesos saying ‘that [as] it mounted to the clouds those other marvels lost their brilliancy’. 

Strabo in the 1st century BC gives by far the most detailed description of the Seven Wonders. 

The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, the oldest and only Wonder that still exists, was erected around 2560 BC. It is the largest of the three Pyramids at Giza, which are all equally important as stated by Philo of Byzantium. The proportions of the Great Pyramid are colossal. The original height from the base to the peak was about 147 meters. The length of each side at the base averaged around 230 meters. The theories about its construction and function are widespread and are by no means conclusive. 

The statue of Zeus in Olympia stood inside the Temple of Zeus. The large sitting Zeus was made of ivory and gold by Phidias in 436 BC. Although he was seated, Zeus stood 12.4 meters high, meaning that his head nearly touched the ceiling. Nothing much of the temple remains but its impressive East and West pediments are exhibited in full glory at the local museum (see: Olympia, in the footsteps of Pausanias). 

The first Temple of Artemis in Ephesus goes back to the 7^th century BC. After its destruction, it was completely rebuilt to an unheard scale of 115 x 55 meters, i.e., larger than the Parthenon in Athens. The Artemis venerated in this temple is represented with many breasts, and is clearly not of Greek origin but imported from the East (see: Alexander’s presence in Ephesus). Nothing remains today to prove its grandeur and glory.

The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, (see: Halicarnassus, capital of Caria) from about 350 BC was a rectangular monument measuring 40 x 30 meters, and about 45 meters high. It was decorated with scenes from Greek mythology, such as the battle of the Centaurs with the Lapiths and fighting Amazons, although scholars disagree on their precise position. It is certain, however, that the statues of King Mausolos and his wife/sister Artemesia riding in a four-horse chariot, now at the British Museum, stood at the very top of the Mausoleum. The tomb survived in pretty good condition for many years despite recurrent earthquakes but the final blow happened in 1494 when the Knights of St John of Rhodes invaded the area and reused the stones of the Mausoleum to build their castle. Remnants are still visible to modern visitors on the walls of Bodrum Castle. 

The Colossus of Helios in Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindos, was completed in 282 BC. It stood near the entrance of the harbor although the exact location is unknown. The Colossus wore a crown of sun rays – hence its name Colossus of Helios - and held up a torch. It was made of bronze and rested on a marble pedestal. With a height of 33 meters, it is considered the tallest bronze from antiquity. It was the shortest-lived ancient wonder that disappeared 60 years after its construction due to a severe earthquake. Its legend lives on though. 

The Lighthouse or Pharos of Alexandria was the last wonder added to the list of seven, replacing the Walls of Babylon. It was conceived in three stages: a square stone base, an octagonal middle section, and a cylindrical shape at the top. Inside, a fire would guide the seafarers into the harbor of Alexandria. By day, they were led by the smoke, and at night by its bright light (see: Alexandria’s past futures). The Lighthouse stood over 100 meters tall and its light could be seen 50-60 kilometers out at sea. Its construction was completed between 300 and 280 BC during the reigns of Ptolemy I Soter and his son, Ptolemy II Philadelphus.  

The ancient historians of Alexander the Great have spent very little ink on these Seven Wonders – or the texts simply have not reached us. The Temple of Ephesos, which burnt down the night Alexander was born, was still under construction at the time of his visit. But the king must have witnessed the grand Mausoleum of Halicarnassus and the main features of Babylon such as its Walls, the Ishtar Gate (which he used to enter the city), and the Gardens if they were indeed part of the Royal Palace. Strangely enough, Giza and its Pyramids are absent from all documents, as if they never existed!

Alexander’s Oriental Afterlife

This is the title of one of the many intriguing chapters in Robbert Bosschart’s book “All Alexander’s Women”. Beyond the widespread descriptions of Alexander’s life in our Western literature, the author hunted for Eastern sources. There are two key figures to consider, Ferdowsi and Nizami (see: Timeline of Main Arabic/ Persian Sources writing about Alexander). 

Ferdowsi is a Persian poet from the 10^th century who is still very much revered in Iran today famous for his Shah-Nama, one of the longest epic poems in the world. It tells the (partially mythical) history of the Persian Empire from its creation until the end of the Sassanid rule in the 7^th century. 

The other prominent figure is Nizami, known as the greatest romantic poet in Persian literature. He lived in the 12^th century and described Alexander as a philosopher king and sage. 

It is not surprising that the Persians looked at Alexander from a very different angle as highlighted by R. Bosschart. Here are a few such examples, excerps from his book: 

The vast popularity attained by the Alexander Romance over the centuries means that thousands of local storytellers have entertained millions of listeners in countless places with a marvelous or terrifying Alexander, made to measure for the taste of the audience.

But their tales were based on a very limited number of source texts. That is, whatever version of the Life and Deeds they might have heard or read, plus some (snippets of) local literature. For example, the 170 fake Alexander letters that circulated in Egypt from Ptolemaic times; or, in Persia, one of the contradictory Alexanders described in Ferdowsi’s Shah-Nama.

By the time this oral folklore became fixed in writing (a process that took obscure propaganda hacks and famous poets quite some centuries), an astonishing variety of Alexanders were living a fascinating afterlife. Most of them, just as an entertaining or educational sample of literary fantasy; but at least in two cases, with a profound social-political significance.

I am referring to the way in which the storytellers of Egypt and Persia appeased the bad conscience of their patriotic audience over the fact that their nation, with its ages-old, proud civilization, had submitted so meekly or even zealously to that young barbarian Alexander. Their solution was simple: they converted him to a ‘hidden’ son of a respectively Egyptian or Persian monarch, so that he could be welcomed back in ‘his true homeland’ as a liberator with full birthright to the throne.

…

The marriage of the daughter of Persia’s previous king to Alexander is a historical fact. During their negotiations after his first defeat, Darius III tells Alexander he can marry «one of my daughters». Years later, Alexander moreover receives the public approval of queen-mother Sisygambis to marry her granddaughter, the princess Barsine/Stateira.

But in his literary afterlife, the bride always is another princess: the insignificant Roxane, in the multiple versions based on the pseudo-Kallisthenes; or the magnificent, ‘divine’ Buran-dokht in a Persian tradition. However, in all these fantasied romances without exception, the reason why he marries her is the plea of the routed king Darius, who, with his dying breath, asks him to do so.

Only in the Persian version, Darius/Darab adds another petition to his deathbed plea. In Ferdowsi’s Shah-Nama, the routed king whispers in Alexander’s ear: «…Ask for my daughter’s hand in marriage; look after my children, my family, and my veiled wise women».

Who or what these wise women would be —so important that the High King in his last words before his death desperately wants to make sure they will be respected by the future ruler—, Ferdowsi sees no need to explain: he is sure that the (Persian) audience will understand.

This signifies two things. One: that wise women in the age of the Achaemenid empire were highly considered, and their rights were deemed worthy of the maximum protection. And two: as this oral tradition has been created to justify, to the eyes of a Persian audience, events in Alexander’s deeds which they recognized but needed to get explained, it follows that they knew that Alexander had wise Persian women at his side, and respected women’s rights. After all, such national sagas like the Shah-Nama and the Darab-Nama were intended as a reminder so that the Persians would not forget their glorious past.

… we are presented with an Oriental legend. Or rather, an embroidered version of a historic fact known to every Persian in the Achaemenid empire — and to many Jews, who revered Cyrus the Great because he had freed them from slavery in Babylon and sent them home to rebuild their temple in Jerusalem.

The fact is that in 530 BC Cyrus went to war against queen Tomyris of the Massagetai — and lost.

…

Tomyris sends a herald to Cyrus with her message: «Stop this war effort, because you cannot know if in the end it will do you any good. Be content to rule in peace over your own kingdom, and let me reign in mine. But of course, you will refuse my advice».

Cyrus indeed refuses to listen to her wise words, attacks – and dies on the battlefield. Now, it is a well-known theme that Alexander always tries to (and succeeds in) surpassing the feats of Cyrus. So here the Jews —who maintained good relations with Alexander throughout his reign, acting as loyal subjects— award him another victory: Alexander comes out a winner where Cyrus failed.

This is the beginning of a literary tradition – later represented so brilliantly by Nizami’s Iqbal-Nama— that describes Alexander as a philosopher king, Seeker of Knowledge, a sage whose only real aim is to learn wisdom.

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Persia’s historical memory, as explained by the saga “Darab-Nama”, also remembers Alexander’s decision to promote mass-marriages for the better integration of conquerors and conquered into one realm. This is how the story in this popular saga was told to audiences all over Persia: 

Alexander and his army happen upon an island of women, and thousands of these invade the camp «searching for men». Alexander first suspects that they may be hostile, but soon understands they only want to make love —and then fears that his own men will “go berserk”, causing even worse problems. So he allows his wise chancellor –whose name is given as Plato— to apply a miracle-working solution.

Alexander and his wise chancellor Plato receive queen Sabaterah.

She reigns over an island where only women live, who all want

sex with men. Plato will ensure that they become legal spouses.

(Miniature from a 1720 AD manuscript of the Darab-Nama)

[Graciously shared by Robbert Bosschart]

Plato calls upon the women and asks them: «By the will of God, and so be all the Angels your witnesses, will you give yourselves in legal union to the men that will enter your city?» They agree. The storyteller concludes: «When the women were trying to seduce the men, it was the work of the Devil; but as soon as they were conveniently and legally married, it became God’s work, and Alexander could no longer be held responsible for any problems arising of their arrival».

Clearly, this is a remembrance of the mass-marriages (in reality, the legalization of de facto marriages) that Alexander organised in parallel with his double wedding at Susa in 324 BC. Out of his own purse, as Arrian reports in VII, 4, 8, he paid dowries for the Persian and other Oriental women who had taken up with his officers and soldiers, so they could be legally married. The list totalled some 10,000 dowries, and the classical sources say that Alexander disbursed over 10,000 talents of silver for them; an amount equivalent to 150 million dollars of today. It is understandable that these marriages, converting thousands of concubines into legal wives, left an indelible memory among the Persians.

Just as important was Alexander’s pledge that he would care for their offspring. Arrian notes in passing that he promised his veterans that their children from Oriental partners “will be educated as Macedonians”. But Diodoros tells more: he registers (in his Book XVII, 110, 3) that Alexander has set up a specific fund and appointed the necessary teachers to ensure that the 10,000 children his men have had with “women who were taken in war” will be educated “as is the right of free men”.

In Book XVIII, Diodoros adds that Alexander had decided to apply his integration policy on a much broader scale: «…he intended to establish cities and to transplant populations from Asia to Europe and in the opposite direction from Europe to Asia, in order to bring the largest continents to common unity and to friendly kinship by means of intermarriages and family ties».

Alexander’s intermarriage policy found lasting approval in Persia, as shown by the positive comment in the Darab-Nama on the “miraculous solution” devised by Plato.

For over a thousand years, Persian audiences have been listening again and again to this story in theaters, bazaars, harems and taverns. They must have agreed: after all, no storyteller makes a living by irritating his public.