The surprise of Myndos

Nowadays, Myndos is probably best-known for its underwater causeway running from the city’s harbor to Rabbit Island, which is guarding the mainland. It is a favorite with the tourists who happily walk across the bay when the sea level is only reaching to their knees. Otherwise, the site has very little to offer with cut stones and column drums strewn around. 

These ruins make it very difficult to imagine that Myndos was once a large prosperous city. In 377 BC, King Mausolos of Halicarnassus established Caria’s independence from Persia. He rebuilt the cities of Myndos and Syangela, and moved all other Carians to Halicarnassus, which he proclaimed his new capital (see: Halicarnassus, capital of Caria). 

Myndos, modern Gümüșlük, had a well-sheltered harbor, well-protected against the prevailing wind. The city had a two-mile-long fortification wall and its most vulnerable southeastern section was strengthened with towers. The green granite used for its construction is the same as the one known from the Mausoleum in Halicarnassus. The quarry providing these stones has been located in Koyunbaba, some three kilometers to the north. 

Otherwise, hardly anything else remains from ancient Myndos. Some rock-cut stairs and foundations of houses are found on the hillside, but the ruins that were present in the early 19^th century have entirely disappeared. They are said to belong to a theater from the 4th century BC, a stadium with 7 columns, vaulted remains of a Bath, and a late Roman/early Byzantine basilica. 

Until the 1990s, there were more ancient stone blocks and bits of columns lying around in the village. Near a school, about 1.5 kilometers inland, some columns and Roman mosaics could be seen. Strangely, the nearby silver mines (hence the name Gümüșlük) are not mentioned in ancient sources. 

When Alexander besieged Halicarnassus in 334 BC, he speculated that Myndos would offer an easier approach. Some people in Myndos had actually suggested that they might open the city gates if he arrived under cover of darkness. Alexander took their word, but when he showed up at the gates there was no sign of surrender. Facing the betrayal, he ordered his Macedonians to attack without much result because he had not brought any rams, artillery or ladders. Myndos put up a vigorous resistance and soon was joined by Halicarnassus’ troops arriving by sea. Alexander was forced to withdraw and returned to besiege Halicarnassus. 

The capital of Caria was not taken so easily because the Persian commander Orontobates had the support of the Persian fleet. For the time being, Halicarnassus was no longer a real threat. Alexander moved on but left Ptolemy and Asander behind to finally take the city and to evict the remaining Persians. It was only a year later, in Soli, that Alexander received the long-awaited news that Halicarnassus had finally fallen!  At the same time, the town of Myndos came under Macedonian hands (see: A two-month-project to excavate the city of Soli). 

After the king’s death, Myndos was ruled by the Ptolemies from 308 until 275 BC. In 96 BC, it became independent and minted its own coins. Myndos was included in the Roman Province of Asia Minor in 133 BC. 

The harbor city was again in the news after the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BC, after which Brutus and Cassius were expelled from Rome; they took their fleet to safety here at Myndos. By the end of 42 BC, the two murderers lost the battle against Marc Antony and Octavian in Philippi, and Myndos was given to Rhodes (see: Philippi, Macedonia’s gold and silver mines). Not for long though as the Rhodians treated Myndos harshly and unfairly and became independent again. However, it gradually lost its prosperity, although it may have survived till the 7th century AD. 

Myndos is often referred to as a Lelegian town, dating back to the Bronze Age. Except for its name, it has no connection with the classical city discussed in this article and both have a different history. The Lelegian site is nowadays called Old Myndos and lies a good three kilometers southeast of Gümüșlük.

The multiculturalism of Alexandria

Earlier this month, Academia.edu shared an article by Rogério Sousa, Alexandrea ad Aegyptum: The legacy of Multiculturalism in Antiquity, together with a team of specialists in Art History, Archaeology, Literature, Mathematics, Egyptology, and Classical Studies. 

It is a nice complement to my blog Alexandria, first Renaissance, which I published just recently.

At the beginning of said book from 2012, a Chapter called FORWARD, deserves our dearest attention. It is written by Ismael Serageldin, Librarian of Alexandria. Who is better placed to describe Alexander’s role in creating a multicultural city that led “to the betterment of the human condition and carry us to heights unimagined.” I’m quoting this Chapter hereafter for everyone to enjoy: 

"The founding of Alexandria in 331 B.C.E. was a momentous event in the history of mankind. Alexander's dream was to create an international city, a space where people from all over the known world would live and work together for the development of the human mind. Alexandria therefore endures in our imagination as the first model of cultural interaction – of cosmopolitanism, to use both classical and contemporary terminology – and as the cultural and intellectual capital of the Ancient World. 

The intermingling of races and beliefs, and the exchange of ideas, undoubtedly produced the knowledge that modern scholarship still celebrates. For centuries Alexandria ruled the Mediterranean not just through its wealth and military power, but also with its intellectual achievements which came to fruition at the ancient Library of Alexandria. It was there that scholars gathered from the four corners of the world to push the boundaries of human knowledge and unleash the human mind on myriad quests. To this day it symbolizes the noblest aspirations of the human mind, global ecumenism, and the greatest achievements of the intellect. In Science, Mathematics, Astronomy and the humanities, the mark of Alexandrian scholarship and discoveries is to be found everywhere. 

The ancient Library of Alexandria was not just a repository of scrolls, valuable though those might have been. It was a centre of learning and of excellence, as we would today call it. It did not survive the turmoil of conflict and bigotry, or even the scars of time and natural disasters (for no physical remains exist), but its legacy lived on. Sixteen hundred years after its final collapse, the dream of its revival became a reality and it was resurrected, through international efforts, on the shores of the Mediterranean, just a stone's throw away from where its famed predecessor had stood. The new Library of Alexandria is a bold evocative building, but like its namesake, it is much more than a building and is not just a library. Born digital, it has risen to the challenges of the modern times and aspires to be a library for the new digital age. It is also, like the ancient Library, a centre of learning and dialogue, a space for intellectual debates (encouraging especially the youth), scholarship, and the arts, as well as a meeting place for North and South, East and West. Equipped with state-of-the-art technology and conference halls, it is a vast cultural complex with its own orchestra, museums, permanent as well as temporary exhibitions, research centres and publications. As it celebrates its tenth anniversary this October, the new Library of Alexandria can look back with pride upon the large strides it has taken towards promoting culture, dialogue and scholarship, reassuring its ancestor that ideas never die, and that though men may expire and buildings may perish, great minds are immortal. 

This conference, and its proceedings, are a testimony that the values embodied by Alexandria and its Library continue to inspire noble minded scholars whose pursuit for knowledge transcends boundaries and time. The breadth and scope of the papers presented do credit to the spirit of Alexandria – its multiculturalism, and its passion for science and scholarship. All this would not have been possible without the enlightened leadership of the first Ptolemies, who translated Alexander's dream in ways that may have exceeded his 10 alexandrea ad aegyptvm: the legacy of multiculturalism in antiquity expectations. The genius of the site, Alexander's choice, allowed the city to accumulate immense wealth through maritime trade, and this in turn allowed the Ptolemies to channel funds towards culture. It was they who laid the foundations of enlightenment, symbolized by the Pharos, the Museion and the Library. Under their aegis, scholarship and science – the product of foreign and local minds working together – made immense leaps in all areas. Callimachus, especially revered in the new Library of Alexandria, not only revolutionized poetry but also classified books according to author, title and subject, thereby establishing library science. Euclid's book continues to be taught to this day, a record that has yet to be broken! And Philo's early attempt at reconciling philosophy with religion set a tradition that also continues to engage philosophers and theologians. Indeed, Alexandria's importance in philosophy, Judaism and Christianity is a matter for deep scholarship, but this conference pays attention to the especial role Alexandria played in spreading the cult of Isis throughout the world, making her the most popular deity of ancient times. Cleopatra herself often assumed the role of Isis (thus providing a marvelous example of cultural interaction) during festivals and religious ceremonies. She was the last of the Ptolemies and the Hellenistic age came to an end with the asp bite that ended her life. Yet her magic, like that of the city which she ruled, lives on. The Hellenistic age may have officially ended with Octavian's victory, but it never died. 

The proceedings in our hands confirm that the multiculturalism of the Ancient World, rippling out from Alexandria to extend throughout the Hellenistic period and beyond, is as valid now as it was then – perhaps more so today, when globalization has given a new meaning to the internationalism envisioned by Alexander the Great centuries ago. Now, with the «clash of civilizations» dominating our discourse, it is pertinent to remember the lesson Alexandrea ad Aegyptum taught us: that the interaction between cultures can only lead to the betterment of the human condition and carry us to heights unimagined".

Speaking of the Mausoleum of Alexander

The massive circular tomb of Emperor Augustus in Rome has recently been opened to the public. This makes headline news to most people (including the Roman citizens) because the building was neglected and stood abandoned for the past 80 years. Finally, renovation works were completed, and the mausoleum has opened for visitors. 

The Mausoleum of the first Roman Emperor stands along the Tiber River just as the much better-known Castel Sant’Angelo, which initially was conceived as a mausoleum for the later Emperor Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD) and his family. 

Working on the Tomb of Augustus, archaeologists were in for some surprises. They always thought that this mausoleum was cone-shaped, but their restoration revealed a cylindrical building. That is not surprising if we look at Hadrian’s Mausoleum, which also stands along the Tiber and is cylindrical. 

As Octavian returned home after his victory over Egypt, he proclaimed himself emperor and took the name Augustus. This was the proper time to start the construction of his tomb. With his title of Emperor came the megalomania of having the largest mausoleum ever with a diameter of about 87 meters! It seems that even today, this is a world record. The idea was that the emperors coming after him would also be buried in this tomb. So the ashes of Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius were indeed interred in this necropolis. It must have made quite a statement with its shiny marble walls. Archaeologists suspect that an enormous statue of Augustus crowned the mausoleum. 

This type of construction was apparently not confined to Rome since other similar tombs existed in Algeria. The Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania in Tipaza may be the best-preserved example. It was built in 3 BC for King Juba II of Mauretania and Cleopatra Selene II, his wife. This queen was the daughter of Cleopatra VII and Marc Antony. She successfully ruled over Mauretania until she died in 6 BC. Her husband built this mausoleum for her, and based on its size, the idea probably was to also use it for future generations of royal families. King Juba died in 23 AD, and his remains joined those of his wife. 

The mausoleum appears not to be unique as the shape was known throughout Numidia. It may, however, also be inspired by Augustus’ tomb which was built some 25 years earlier. The circular stone construction with a diameter of 60 meters was initially topped with a cone or pyramid standing 40 meters tall. The walls were decorated around the outside perimeter with 60 Ionic columns, which have now lost their capitals. Inside there were two separate vaulted chambers. 

A recent article published on Academia by Michael Bengtsson, “Reconstruction of the Palace area in Alexandria,” sheds another light on the Mausoleum of Alexander, which was visited for centuries in Alexandria. The author has carefully reconstructed the Royal Palace of Alexandria, referring to the texts written by Zenobius, Strabo, Suetonius, and Lucan. 

Based on the striking resemblance between the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania in Algeria and the Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome, Michael Bengtsson concluded that the tomb of Alexander served as a prototype for both. I think we may safely assume that the size of Alexander’s circular tomb must have surpassed all! 

In the case of the Algerian Mausoleum, we can be confident that Cleopatra Selene, born in Alexandria, thoroughly knew the Palace and the burial site of Alexander. As General Octavian, Augustus conquered Alexandria in 30 BC after winning the Battle of Actium against Marc Antony. He also visited the tomb of Alexander. And finally, Hadrian was in Alexandria in 130 BC. As a lover of all things Greek, he most certainly was full of admiration for Alexander and must have seen his tomb. He may well have been inspired to use the circular shape for his own Mausoleum.

Other Roman emperors who paid their respects to Alexander were Julius Caesar in 45 BC, Caligula, Septimius Severus early 3rd century AD, and Caracalla in the 3rd century AD. It is said that Septimius Severus closed Alexander’s tomb to the public when too many tourists flocked to see it! The crowds and tourists are of all times, it seems.

See also: Linking the Pantheon in Rome with ancient Mausoleums

[Top picture from World History Encyclopedia - Second picture from Atlas Obscura - Bottom picture from Michael Bengtsson]

Hidden treasures of Epirus

Northern Greece and Epirus, in particular, are not top destinations for the common tourist – unfortunately so. 

Epirus is wedged in the northwestern corner of Greece, and this rugged mountainous landscape shares borders with Albania. It is also the homeland of Queen Olympias, Alexander’s mother. 

[Picture from Wikipedia]

The best-known site is the sanctuary of Dodona, which King Pyrrhus of Epirus promoted as the religious capital in 290 AD. It features a remarkable theater and is seen as the oldest Hellenic oracle. Other notable places are Gitana (3^rd century BC), Amvracia (founded in the 7^th century BC. It was given to Pyrrhus by the son of Cassander in 294 BC); Cassope (founded in the 4^th century BC), and Nicopolis (founded in 28 BC by Octavian after his victory at Actium). 

At present, a project has been conceived to link the theaters of these towns together and to create a brand new tourist trail. The idea behind this plan is that from antiquity onward, theaters are places where people met and interacted on different levels. 

These five archaeological sites are stringed along a circuit of 344 kilometers which the intrepid traveler can discover. Although the theater shares a common link, it is obvious that the sites have much more to offer when it comes to archaeology, history, culture, art, and modern daily life. 

The article from the Archaeology News Network puts the accent on developing tourism in the region. Still, the underlying historical value of the antique cities is not in the least described. Without their appropriate background, it is difficult to truly appreciate the theaters as their focal points.

Climate change in antiquity and its economic consequences

Although political and social unrest during the 1^st century BC transpires from our recorded history, the underlying cause was not known. People understandably blamed the gods, the priests, and/or their leaders. In our 21^st century, we are able to pinpoint the true culprit, a rather unknown volcano in Alaska, the Okmok. 

Analyzes of the volcanic records in six separate cores taken from the Greenland ice cap have revealed two major volcanic eruptions that occurred approximately 8,300 and 2,050 years ago.  In-depth research enabled scientists to establish a more precise date in early 43 BC. As a result, the years 43 and 42 BC were among the coldest recorded in the last 2,500 years and started one of the coldest decades. The eruption led to colder seasonal temperatures in the Mediterranean region for at least two years.

[Timeline showing European summer temperatures and volcanic sulfur and ash levels in relation to the Okmok II Eruption and significant historic events of the Roman Republic and Ptolemaic Kingdom from 59 to 20 BCE [Credit: DRI]. From The Archaeology News Network]

Time-wise, this natural catastrophe coincided with significant historical events. Only one year before, Julius Caesar had been assassinated leaving the Roman Republic in utter turmoil. The state affairs somehow stabilized when Octavian proclaimed himself emperor of Rome in 27 BC. In the meantime, Cleopatra had been struggling to restore power in the Eastern Mediterranean. By 31 BC, she had to surrender to Octavian who took the title of Augustus Caesar as he founded the Roman Empire.

The problems Cleopatra had been facing were not only of political order. Egypt was suffering because the Nile failed to flood in 43 and 42 BC. Today we know that the eruption of the Okmok affected the Nile watershed. The scarce rain in some areas was not enough to replace the annual Nile River flood, causing food scarcity, famine, and disease. These facts have been confirmed by archaeological and written sources, but until now they were not linked to a volcanic eruption in the faraway Aleutian Islands. Further research has established that for at least two years, temperatures in certain Mediterranean regions fell nearly 7 degrees Centigrade below the normal average.

A local Egyptian governor left us an inscription dated about 39 BC, in which he describes his struggle to find food for the population as there had been no flooding of the Nile for several years. In this text, even the priests recognized this man to be a true savior of the people. Coming from them, clearly underscores the seriousness of the situation.

In the end, had Cleopatra and the Roman rulers known about the explosive eruption of that Alaskan volcano, there is nothing they could have done to avoid the famine and the chaos in their countries. With hindsight, however, we may – I think – be a little milder in judging their leadership. 

As recent as July 2008, the Okmok erupted again for five consecutive days reshaping the volcanic cone dramatically. Altogether, it remained active for a full month. However, I have not come across records of regional or widespread influences on the climate.

Massive plundering of art in the early years of the Roman Empire

The plundering and looting of artwork have been ongoing for centuries, and it was not Emperor Augustus’ scoop. In a previous blog Wartime Looting in antiquity, I covered many ancient artifacts that changed owners over the centuries. This time I want to focus on Augustus’ contribution, among which are some treasures related to Alexander the Great.

Octavian's conquest of Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean clearly went to his head. He was now the most powerful man on earth for all to see and respect. To underscore his role, he proclaimed himself emperor taking the name of Augustus, which means majestic and venerable. Modesty was not his virtue.

The greatest treasures that fell in Octavian hands came from Alexandria, where the Ptolemies had amassed many artworks from the most famous Greek artists like Apelles, Alexander’s privileged painter, and Antiphilus, a contemporary of Apelles and maybe rival. However, he worked mainly for Philip II and for Ptolemy I. Egypt was an untouched trophy, and besides their Greek heritage, they had gathered spoils from Africa and collected other precious Orientalist Greek-Egyptian works of art, all to be added to their own centuries-old cultural heritage. Obviously, Octavian’s army helped themselves during what must have been quite a rampage after the downfall of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. Upon their return to Rome, blinded by the wealth that poured into the city, everybody of name and fame wanted a piece of the pie and acquired what they could by all possible means: from honest purchases and authentic gifts to robbery, haggling, blackmail, or bribery.

Egypt was not the first victim, and we will remember that only a good one hundred years before, the Romans had helped themselves to the treasures of Macedonia in 168 BC when they won the decisive Battle of Pydna. Aemilius Paulus took the royal library of Macedonia with him, and Sulla followed suit in 86 BC, helping himself to Aristotle’s personal library in Athens. Marc Antony simply dispatched the 200,000 parchment rolls from the Library of Pergamon to Cleopatra in 43 BC as a wedding gift. Papyri and parchment rolls were no booty to show off with, but paintings, statues, and jewelry enabled you to brag. As kingdoms like Macedonia and Pergamon were subdued by Rome, they became treasure troves for art lovers and the nouveau riches.

Julius Caesar was already a great “collector,” and Octavian, as the new Emperor Augustus, would not stay behind. With the increase of its wealth, Rome developed further refinement. Several private connoisseurs are known by name, like L. Lucinius Luculius and Novius Vindex, who highly appreciated Greek bronze and marble statues made by Lysippos (he acquired a statuette of Heracles, which was previously owned by Alexander, Hannibal, and Sulla), Praxiteles, Phidias, Skopas, and Polycleitus, and the paintings by Apelles were among their prized objects.

Augustus “bought” a famous painting of Aphrodite by Apelles, a controversial transaction that officially enabled the citizens of Cos to pay their outstanding taxes, but some obscure blackmail is more likely. The painting was exhibited for the opening of the Temple of the deified Julius Caesar in the Forum Romanum in 29 BC. Despite the eulogy written by several Latin poets, it remains unclear whether this Aphrodite was painted in the nude, rising from the sea and wringing her hair, or if only her upper body was showing. Two more paintings by Apelles were put on public display on the Forum, probably because they featured Alexander the Great. They were “Castor and Pollux with Victory and Alexander the Great” and “The Figure of War with his Hands tied behind him following the Triumphal Chariot of Alexander.”

Everything tied to Alexander was a prime possession as Augustus was a great admirer of the world conqueror and visited his tomb while he was in Alexandria. So it seems that the bronze Nike statues that supported each corner of the canopy over Alexander’s funeral chariot, as described by Diodorus, found their way to Rome as two of them were placed in front of the Temple of Mars Ultor and the two others stood in front of the Regia. These Nike originally were covered with gold foil or gilt and not made of massive gold as often assumed, for that would have made the statues too heavy for the funeral chariot.

Another close relation to Alexander was found in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus. According to Pliny the Elder, inside this temple stood a magnificent bronze chandelier “with the lights fixed like apples on a tree,” which had been taken by Alexander from Thebes in 335 BC (another earlier spoil of war!). Alexander had dedicated it as his votive offering after victory at the Battle of the Granicus.

The Alexandrian painter Antiphilus was another favorite artist of the Roman emperor. A group representing “Alexander with Philip and Athena” was placed in Rome’s Portico of Octavia with ”Noble Hesione.” In the nearby Portico of Philippi, three more works found a place: “Alexander portrayed in his early teens,” “Dionysus,” and the “Death of Hippolytos.”

Augustus’ greed was boundless, and he did not hesitate to confiscate the chryselephantine statue of Athena from Tegea made by a certain Endoios to place it on the Forum Augusti. At the time of his conquest of Egypt, he also seized the statue of Zeus made by Myron from Samos and moved it to Capitol Hill in Rome.

These are, of course, only a few examples, for it is impossible to know how many works of art Augustus brought to Rome and how many pieces from previous acquisitions changed hands in those days. Yet the quantities and mainly their quality were unheard of, and we must thank Pliny the Elder for documenting the works displayed in Rome’s many public buildings and porticoes. Pausanias also, during his extensive travels, highlighted the prized collection. Plutarch, in turn, had an eye for Cleopatra’s treasures, including precious metals, jewels, pearls, and ivory.

It is hard to imagine the wealth and luxury displayed in the heyday of Rome, for this is far beyond anything we can imagine. Opulence was the common good, the Romans ruled the world, and they showed it.

[The above is based on an article published by Academia.edu: Plundered art in the galleries of Augustan Rome, uploaded by Tomasz Polański. The pictures are mine.]

Carthage Antique, des origines jusqu’à l’invasion Vandale (814 BC-439 AD) by Samir Aounallah

Clip and clear, one of the best historical overviews of Carthage is to be found in this booklet, Carthage Antique, des origines jusqu’à l’invasion Vandale (Antique Carthage from its origins to the invasion of the Vandals) (814 BC-439 AD) by Samir Aounallah (ISBN 978-9973-878526).

In a concise but very transparent way, the author walks us through Punic Carthage, telling us how it disappeared, followed by the birth of another Carthage as created by the Romans after having destroyed the city about a century before until it became the mighty Colonia Concordia Iulia Carthago.

Carthage was founded in 814 BC as a colony of Phoenician Tyre and the principal information comes from its cemeteries, the so-called tophets. Soon Carthage outshone Tyre to become a powerful nation in its own right that inevitably grew to be the envy of Rome. This led to what went down into history as The Punic Wars.

The First Punic War was fought from 264 to 241 BC mainly in and around Sicily. The Second Punic War that raged from 218 until 201 BC is probably best known for Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps. The decisive blow happened during the Third Punic War that lasted only three years (149-146 BC) and ended with the victory of the Romans. After the loss of hundreds and maybe thousands of soldiers on both sides, the almighty Romans thoroughly destroyed the city of Carthage.

Since the city sat on a strategic location, Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus decided in 44 BC that it should be rebuilt. So whatever poor remains were left from the Punic city were now buried underneath the new Roman metropolis, hence the complication for modern archaeologists to redefine the outlines of either city.

This booklet is an excellent attempt to sort out the widespread ruins. It contains plenty of photographs of the ruins as visible today but also many artifacts that have been moved to the Bardo Museum in Tunis and the Museum of Carthage on the spot. Several drawings, maps, reconstructive maquettes, and visualization pictures help to create a vivid image of what this grand city once looked like. Besides, many pages contain inserts in italics quoting texts from antique writers and other historical authors.

In short, it is an excellent tool for whoever wants to visit the remains of Carthage in modern Tunisia or for those interested in a solid historical overview.

Intriguing pyramid in Rome

Many years ago, I remember how this “piramide” (in Italian with the accent on the “ra”) was my beacon to find my way to my lodgings on the road to Ostia. Back then, I did not investigate its origins and just dismissed this dirty monument as one of those extravagant imitations we may encounter anywhere.

This being said, I was truly surprised to hear that this pyramid was an iconic landmark dating from the first century BC and that a Japanese businessman made funds available for its restoration in gratitude for his flourishing business in Italy. The world is certainly full of surprises!

This steep Pyramid was built around 18-12 BC over the tomb of Gaius Cestius measuring at its base 29.6 meters over a height of 37 meters. The tomb itself was a barrel-vaulted chamber of 6x4 meters and 4.8 meters high, once richly decorated with frescoes that were still visible in 1660 when the tomb was opened for the first time since antiquity. Although the tomb had been sealed after construction, it has, as so often, been looted in antiquity. Today it is empty and only scant traces of fresco survived.

Once the place was cleaned up, it appears that this once grim and obscure pyramid is covered with Carrara marble, which evidently has suffered much from physical, chemical, and biological decay over the centuries. Thanks to the use of innovative materials and techniques, which will benefit future conservation projects as well, the restoration team was able to deal with Rome’s pollution issues.

As a bonus, we now can even read the inscriptions carved on the east and west flanks of the pyramid reading Gaius Cestius, son of Lucius, of the gens Pobilia, member of the College of Epulones, praetor, tribune of the plebs, septemvir of the Epulones. On the east side only, this inscription is followed by these lines: The work was completed, in accordance with the will, in 330 days, by the decision of the heir [Lucius] Pontus Mela, son of Publius of the Claudia, and Pothus, freedman.

The shape of the pyramid is a close reminder of those found in Nubia, which had been conquered by Rome in 23 BC. Because of this similarity, it is possible that Cestius somehow participated in the Roman campaign in that country where the idea caught on. It seems that there were other examples of pyramids built in Rome at that time, like the Pyramid of Romulus which was taken down by Pope Alexander VI who used the marble for the steps of St Peter’s Basilica. Before the Roma hype, these pointed pyramids were already favored by the Ptolemys in Egypt, a country that fell to Octavian in 30 BC with the death of the famous Queen Cleopatra.

What a shame that such an odd construction has been taken out of its context and now sits in the middle of the city’s heavy traffic. But there is good news too as the Pyramid is now open to the public every second and fourth Saturday of the month.

Cleopatra VII and her children, the last of the Ptolemies

Cleopatra was not only the last queen to rule over Egypt before the country fell into Roman hands; she also was the last of the Ptolemaic Dynasty founded by Ptolemy I, a prominent general in the army of Alexander the Great.

After Alexander died in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his generals after a long feud and endless wars that lasted for forty years. From the onset, Ptolemy had his eyes set on Egypt, and apparently, none of his competitors contested his territory. The Ptolemies ruled Egypt for about three hundred years, putting Alexandria as its glorious new capital on the world map.

 

In 53 BC, the 17-year-old Cleopatra VII co-reigned with her brothers Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Ptolemy XIV, whom she married following the Egyptian tradition and desperately tried to keep Egypt out of Roman grip. It is known that Cleopatra was ambitious, and she arranged for her brothers to be eliminated to become the sole ruler.

So, Cleopatra significantly sought his support when Julius Cesar arrived in Alexandria in 48 BC. They became lovers, and she bore him a son, Caesarion, in 47 BC. Three years later, she left for Rome with her son, but Caesar was murdered by a group of Roman senators within a year. Rome was divided by Octavian and Marc Antony supporters, and since the latter was more popular, Cleopatra concentrated on gaining Marc Antony’s favors. This chagrined the Romans, especially when Marc Antony gave away parts of his empire to Cleopatra in 34 BC. 

Meanwhile, they became lovers, and Cleopatra gave birth to twins, a boy, and a girl, Alexander and Cleopatra, in 40 BC. Their names were changed to Alexander Helios (Sun) and Cleopatra Selene (Moon) three years later when the queen joined Marc Antony in Antioch (modern Turkey). This name-giving happened on the day of an eclipse. This may have led to choosing of a mythological name for the twins. Another son was born in 36 BC and received the name Ptolemy Philadelphus.

Meanwhile, Octavian declared war on this foreign queen in Rome, and he won the Battle of Actium over Marc Antony. A year later, in 30 BC, Octavian landed in Alexandria to face Marc Antony personally, but rather than being killed by his adversary Marc Antony committed suicide. With Cleopatra at his mercy, Octavian refused negotiation of any kind, and Cleopatra, feeling that there was no way out, killed herself – allegedly using poisonous snakes. With her death, the Ptolemaic Dynasty ended.

Caesarion, or Ptolemy Caesar, was then 17 years of age, and he was killed by Octavian only ten days after his own mother. Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire ruled by Octavian, who promoted himself to Emperor Augustus. 

The three children of Cleopatra and Marc Antony were spared by Octavian and taken to Rome instead. The twins were 10 years old, and the little brother was four by then. Their care was entrusted to Octavia, Octavian’s sister, who was, ironically, the widow of Marc Antony. A few years later, the boys disappeared from history, but the girl, Cleopatra Selene, married King Juba II of Mauretania. As far as we know, she had at least one son whom she called Ptolemy Philadelphus, probably in memory of her little brother. It seems she ruled as an equal with her husband since both their images were minted on the local coins.

Fate has added a little twist of its own. Recently an Italian Egyptologist has dusted off a statue from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo portraying Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene as small children. The sculpture was discovered in 1918 near the temple of Dendera on the banks of the Nile. It was stored away in the museum. The ten-meter-high statue shows two naked children of identical size, one male and one female, standing within the coils of two snakes. They are holding each other with one arm around the shoulder of the other while they are grasping the snake with their other hand. They have identified thanks to the sun disc around the boy's head and the lunar disc and crescent held by the girl. We also find the Horus eye on each disc, a typical symbol in Egyptian art. The faces are not very clear, but the boy appears with curly hair and a braid on the right side of his head, as was customary. The girl’s hair is cut according to the fashion of the Ptolemaic dynasty and of Cleopatra in particular. 

It is nice to see that at least a picture of these poor children has survived for 2,100 years. What history they could have written!

[Picture of Ceasarion is from Wikipedia]

[Picture of Cleopatra and Ceasarion at de Temple of Dendera is from Wikipedia] 

[Picture of Cleopatra's twins is from Discovery News]