The army’s Swiss knife - not really.

As so often, our modern inventions are not exactly new and a mere “re-invention” of something that existed centuries before and was lost in the mists of time.

[Picture from © The Fitzwilliam Museum , Cambridge]

That is exactly what happened with the Swiss knife. The news made headlines in an article written by Carly Silver and published in Ancient Origins last June. The pictures immediately speak to our imagination and it is hard to believe that we are looking at an ancient Roman multi-function tool from the 3^rd century AD having a small knife, a spatula, a fork (oh, yes!), a toothpick and a spike.

It seems that several such “Swiss” knives do exist, the most elaborated one being at the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge. It is made of iron and silver, and as such it is rather expensive and not exactly a possession for the common soldier. Not knowing where the knife was found except that it comes from the Mediterranean may imply that the owner would not necessarily be a Roman and that he may have acquired it anywhere in the Empire of those days.

The backpack of the Roman soldier (and the Macedonian soldier before him) could easily weigh some 30 kilos. Carrying this kind of gadget knife would make some difference in the load, just like today’s backpacker will break off most of the handle of his toothbrush to save weight.

It seems that a similar multi-function tool from the same period was recovered in the Greek province of Thraiae but this one had specific utensils used by a physician like lancets and other items for treating wounds.

Said article also quotes Aristotle saying that “nature makes nothing in an economizing spirit, as smiths make the Delphic knife, but one thing with a view to one thing.” meaning that Nature designs everything for a singular purpose, in contrast to those who make “Delphic knives,” which combines lots of singular-purpose items into one multi-function masterpiece.

The Greek physician Galen is still popular

Maybe, just maybe, researchers from the University of Basel have deciphered a papyrus that was written by the Greek physician Galen!

This specific papyrus was part of a lot counting 65 papers which were purchased by said University back in 1900 as part of the private collection of Basilius Amerbach, who acquired it at some point in the 16^th century.

The document that has now been tied to Galen was a very intriguing one since it was written in mirror writing on both sides. Thanks to modern ultraviolet and infrared imagery, the laboratory was able to determine that this was not a single sheet but made of several layers that were glued together. After the intervention of a specialist, the different sheets were separated, and the Greek papyrus could, at last, be decoded.

The majority of these sheets are letters, contracts, and receipts, but the Greek text is a medical description of the phenomenon of what is called hysterical apnea. This links the papyrus directly to Galen, being either his own work or an early commentary on his work. To support this theory is the fact that experts were able to connect the document to similar papyri from the chancery of the Archdiocese of Ravenna, Italy, where many antique manuscripts (palimpsests) from Galen are being kept (see also: Hello? Dr. Galen?).

The research team in Basel has made huge progress in deciphering, digitizing, annotating, and translating their papyrus collection, which will be published in early 2019. Making their collection available in a digital database will allow other researchers to add their own papyri and eventually piece together the many fragments from other papyrus collections or possibly compare different versions of the same antique work.

Click here to read the full article published by The Archaeology News Network on deciphering the Basel papyri.

Harpalos’ mismanagement or is it Alexander’s?

It is common knowledge that Alexander valued friendship above all. His first core group of friends took shape at an early age when they joined him in Mieza for Aristotle’s tutoring and these friendships lasted till the end of his life. Harpalos was one of them and he was among those who were exiled by Philip for siding with and supporting his son in the Pixodarus affair. Once he became king, Alexander called them back and promoted them to high positions in his army. Harpalos, however, being physically unfit for military duty was assigned as Treasurer.

In Alexander’s eyes, his friends could do no wrong and a few such examples have transpired. There is Philotas’ first conspiracy in Egypt that was reported by his mistress Antigone and confirmed by Coenus who was married to Philotas’ sister Antigone – strong evidence that Alexander refused to believe. That was in 332 BC and Philotas survived another two years before being put to death in Alexandria in Drangiana for failing to report or for participating in another conspiracy to take Alexander’s life. It is pretty significant that the king left most of the judging and sentencing to his Companions and the Macedonian army.

The case of Harpalos is another matter and by far the most enigmatic example. Just before Alexander engaged in the Battle of Issus and for some obscure reason, Harpalos fled to Megarid in Greece. He may have cowardly chickened out, not believing in his king’s victory against Darius, and seeking a safe haven elsewhere. Or, he may have been under the bad influence of a certain Tauriscus who escaped at the same time to find refuge in Italy. In any case, this indicates that both men had serious reasons to fear Alexander’s wrath for whatever wrongdoing or embezzlement they had committed.

Two years later, however, Alexander inexplicably called Harpalos back and reinstated him with the resounding title of Guardian of the Babylonia Treasury and the Revenues Accruing Thereto and put him in charge of the enormous treasures he had so far collected in Asia Minor and in Egypt. Alexander reassured Harpalos that he would not be punished for whatever happened before. Why he made this decision or what triggered it, is everyone’s guess. One would think he had enough capable and responsible officers in his army he could trust with this highly sensitive position besides Harpalos. Maybe the fact that the aunt of his friend, Phila, was one of his father’s wives played a role since this relationship also made him a family member. In any case, there is no rational explanation for Alexander’s decision. The fact remains that Harpalos occupied the most powerful position compared to Alexander’s other friends and this was in spite of the fact that he had betrayed his king’s trust.

After seizing the intact treasuries of Babylon, Persepolis, and Pasargadae, Alexander put the largest wealth ever accumulated in history into Harpalos' hands, installing him in Ecbatana with 6,000 troops to guard the booty.

As Alexander headed further east into the heart of Central Asia, his treasurer moved to Babylon where he lavishly spent the amounts of money for his own pleasures with prostitutes and hetaerae, setting up a court only equaled by Nero a few centuries later. He picked a courtesan from Athens named Pythionice who was covered with gifts worthy of a queen. This extravagant love affair did not last for she soon died and was interred in a stunning memorial for the baffling price of 200 talents paid for by the treasury. Yet Harpalos’ megalomania did not stop there since he also built a temple in Babylon where she would be worshiped as Aphrodite Pythionic and another expensive monument on the Sacred Road in Athens. This last epitaph was witnessed by our traveling reporter Pausanias several centuries later who considered it unworthy of the 30 talents it had cost.

After this extravaganza, Harpalos sent for another Athenian hetaera, Glycera. Like her predecessor, she lived like a queen and even received divine honors. Her beauty was trumpeted forth in Syria with a statue dedicated to her beauty and at Tarsus where a luxurious palace was constructed for her pleasure. Harpalos showed no respect for Alexander and certainly did not reciprocate his friendship. Like on the eve of the Battle of Issus, he probably expected his king to be the underdog in one of the many fights, battles, skirmishes, and confrontations with the barbarians in the east. Alexander would evidently be killed and never return to the court Harpalos had cut out for himself at Babylon.

But Alexander did return from India and soon discovered how many satraps had taken advantage of their privileged position to fill their own pockets. His response was immediate and he promptly executed the culprits there and then. Obviously, Harpalos had all reasons to expect his king’s anger and he feared for this life. He packed up as much money as he could possibly carry and with 5,000 talents [that is the equivalent of three billion dollars] and 6,000 mercenaries he set sail for Athens.

It is known that Alexander sent three different embassies to demand Harpalos’ extradition but they all returned empty-handed. Thanks to lavish bribes paid by Harpalos to the Athenian politicians – led by the ever-sour Demosthenes - who still resented Alexander’s successes and the Macedonian power, he was able to escape. Eventually, Harpalos was captured in Crete and assassinated by his own men, one year before the king’s own death.

How is it possible that Alexander, the conqueror of the world, was unable to catch and judge Harpalos wherever he was? Many men were killed for stealing less than Harpalos’ extravagant expenditure and the 5,000 talents (equaling 142 tons of silver and 14 tons of gold) he took with him to Athens. Alexander must have been aware of this corruptible behavior but turned a blind eye to it? Neither stupidity nor ignorance can be the reason for Alexander’s action – or non-action - and the most obvious explanation would be mismanagement.

This is an extremely serious accusation and it is hard to believe that a bright mind like Alexander’s could be capable of such a misjudgment and such a miscalculation. As strange as it may be, it seems that Alexander was not truly interested in money but rather in conquering new territories and expanding his power since there are other examples of embezzlement that were left unpunished or which he somehow accepted.

There is the case of Cleomenes, whom Alexander had appointed in Egypt to collect taxes and manage his finances, including the building of Alexandria. This man had set up a shady trade business selling wheat to Athens, extorted money from the priests on a broad scale, and cheated the soldiers in his service. An official complaint was filed and sent to Alexander, and guess what? The king not only pardoned Cleomenes for said crimes ordering him to build a temple in honor of Hephaistion but he also forgave him all future violations! Unbelievable! Ptolemy was much smarter and as soon as he became king of Egypt he executed Cleomenes. Chop-chop!

In between Harpalos’ two appointments as treasurer, there were the cases of Coeranus and Philoxenus who got away with exorbitant amounts of money. The final replacement for Harpalos, Antimenes of Rhodes made a reputation for oppression by imposing outrageous taxes, setting up a swindle business with slave owners and travelers on the royal roads. All these financial officers somehow escaped disciplinary actions, or at least none are being documented besides the cases of Harpalos and Cleomenes.

Maybe it is true that Alexander was not much interested in money, at least not beyond the strict necessity to finance his next campaign or war which would automatically generate a new inflow of money. He loved to give and he gave in style, not only to his close friends but also to new allies (e.g. Porus), to his soldiers as a prize for merit and bravery in combat, and to his veterans sent back to Macedonia including travel expenses, bonuses and stipends for the wives they left behind in Asia. He entirely financed the huge Susa wedding, i.e. his own but also that of his one hundred Companions and he offered wedding gifts for his 10,000 Macedonians who had taken Asian brides on the road. When he heard that his army was in deep debt he paid them some 20,000 talents out of his own pocket (evidently from his treasury) requiring 280 tons of coins.

Being the richest man in the world with wealth acquired in a short decade, Alexander could not call on anyone with enough experience and skills to manage such huge sums. Even himself, although a brilliant general and military leader had no training in managing such enormous amounts of gold and silver. Even his shrewd father had always spent his money before even having it in his hands, but in his case, the consequences were limited because the amounts were less and the world in which he moved was much smaller.

To Alexander’s credit, it should be noted that he leaned heavily on the existing Persian administrative system created by Cyrus the Great but its true implementation would have taken more time since his Macedonian commanders and officers did not (yet) share Alexander’s broad vision of this new world he had created. In the end, they never did for within one year their king was dead and they now had to manage the empire on their own. This, they could not do either and they fought each other in fierce competition for the next forty years.

Restoration of Persepolis – a game of words?

The restoration of Persepolis is making headlines these days following a mutual agreement signed between Austria and Iran to fund the renovation of the site. This is what is being reported by the Archaeological News Network in July 2018.

It seems, however, that a “restoration” is not exactly what is meant.

The project is said to be split into five separate steps. The first step is about securing the site of Persepolis, including the lay out for a new entrance area with coffee shops, souvenir shops and book shops, WC and other useful commodities. In a second phase, attention will go the construction of an electronic exit gate (I suppose, they mean also the entrance gate?), a conference space and a hall for VIP visitors. Next step will center around the organization a tour guide system to function day and night – it is quite tempting to visit the palace remains by full moon, for instance! In the final phases, the Museum of Persepolis will be completed and a separate area will be arranged to host major events.

From what I understand, these plans are focusing on the organization and streamlining of the visitors to the precious remains of Persepolis but have nothing to do with “restoration” of the site itself. A game of words, maybe?

Istanbul, The Imperial City by John Freely

Istanbul, The Imperial City by John Freely (ISBN 978-0140244618) is by far the most complete historical guide you can find. It is a lightweight, handy format that easily fits into your backpack.

Every first-time visitor will inevitably be overwhelmed by the many remnants of this capital, famed successively as Byzantium, Constantinople, and Istanbul, which had a far-reaching role on the world map for over three thousand years.

For obvious reasons, the book is divided into three parts.

The first and shortest covers the city's birth on the Bosporus and the first Greek colonization to become the Roman Byzantium with all the wealth that could be displayed. This was the city besieged by Philip II of Macedonia in preparation for his invasion of Asia. The Romans, in turn, linked the city to Italy through the Via Egnatia, and the Golden Milestone known as The Million marked the distance to the towns stringed along the road. The Great Palace and the Hippodrome date from that era.

The second part starts with the advent of Emperor Constantine in 330 AD, who renamed the city after himself Constantinople. As such, it became the seat of the Eastern Roman Empire. Under great emperors like Theodosius, Justinian, and the dynasty of the Comneni, the city expanded again. Constantinople was besieged repeatedly from the 7^th to the 10^th century by the Sassanids from Persia, the Arabs from the Umayyad caliphate, and the Crusaders, who thoroughly sacked the city.

The last and not less important part treats the birth of Istanbul as the capital of the rising Ottoman Empire that started in 1453. Sultans like Suleiman the Magnificent wrote history, and many of today's great buildings were built in those days. To name just a few, there is the Grand Bazaar, Topkapi Palace, and the many mosques, especially those made by Sinan, to rival the Hagia Sofia from the 6^th century.

Instead of a dry and dull account, John Freely takes us by the hand and leads us from one place to the next, often unfolding the many superposed layers of Istanbul's rich history. A handy additional chapter is dedicated to Notes on Monuments and Museums, which the author referred to in previous pages. As another helpful tool in the complicated and long succession of rulers, there is also a complete list of all the Byzantine emperors and Ottoman sultans ending when Turkey as such was born and Atatürk became its leader.

As always, John Freely makes history look simple, and it is a great pleasure to travel through the ancient world in his footsteps. Another excellent book by the same author is Aladdin's Lamp: How Greek Science Came to Europe Through the Islamic World – a treasure trove of knowledge!

The Mud Baths of Crenides

As people lived much closer to nature, thermal baths in antiquity belonged to everyday life rather than to plush spa resorts as we know them today. Such spots are mentioned throughout history as a matter of fact and are often overlooked.

This is the case of Crenides, the city that was conquered by Philip of Macedonia who renamed it Philippi. Inevitably all attention goes to the latter and the hot springs are ignored although they were known to Aristotle and Xenophon.

[Picture from WikiHow]

However, today, Crenides (or Krinides) is a thermal city that attracts tourists to enjoy its curative waters and therapeutic clay. The spring water has a pleasant temperature of 29 degrees Celsius and is used in hydrotherapy for ailments of the musculoskeletal system and as mineral drinking water to treat gastrointestinal and urinary problems.

What is more, the city also boasts of its clay therapy that is adequately housed in a late Byzantine building used as a Turkish Bath. The mud therapy results from a balanced mix of argil, a local plant, and hot mineral water. It is especially indicated in cases of autoimmune diseases, skin problems, and rheumatism.

It is tempting to imagine King Philip soaking in this hot clay to relieve the pain in his gammy leg and the sore scars of war he suffered although he strongly believed that bathing was only done in cold water. Maybe even Alexander and his companions in spite of this stoic Macedonian rule about cold water enjoyed a pleasant halt at the springs when heading for Thracia or on the way back, who knows…

Setting the bounderies of Philippi

The city of Philippi is only casually mentioned by Arrian when Alexander rides up from Amphipolis to subdue the rebelling Thracian tribe of the Triballi. This happened in 335 BC and the purpose was to safeguard his rear before setting out for Asia.

The event may have passed me by were it not that the Museum of Philippi exhibits two fragments of an inscription showing a royal decree of Alexander the Great defining the limits of the agricultural area that was under control of Philippi. The decree, probably written between 336-334 BC, was on the wall of one of the city’s public buildings although we don’t know which one. From Philippi, the king passed Mount Orbelus (in the Pirin Mountains of modern Bulgaria) and crossed the Haemus Mountains, heading for the Danube. But that is another story.

Early in his march, an embassy from Philippi came to Alexander with the request to set clear boundaries for the agricultural lands under their dominion. In this decree, Alexander confirms the boundaries between Philippi and its Thracian neighbors as enacted by his father Philip, and suggests tax payment for the agriculture of areas that were uncultivated in those days  - probably because originally these were marshlands. The ‘land’ of Philippi includes the plain that is surrounded by hills and the area of marshes as far as the land of Serres (some 80 km west of Philippi) and the bridges of the River Aggites (a tributary of the Strymon River that empties into the Aegean Sea at Amphipolis). The decree also tells us that Philotas and Leonnatus were sent to make sure that the king’s decision was implemented.

We tend to look at cities as an entity on their own but often forget that they were depending for their food on the farmers cultivating the surrounding fields. This decree certain sheds light on the urban organization in antiquity.

The renovated Getty Villa in Malibu, California

For many years, the Getty Villa was a most wonderful place to visit – not only because of its precious collection of antiquities but mostly for the general atmosphere it created. One could so readily imagine walking through the gardens and rooms of a real Roman villa. After all, the Getty Villa is a near-faithful replica of the Villa dei Papiri from Herculaneum as it shone in all its splendor till it was destroyed during the eruption of the Vesuvius in 79 AD.

Entering the villa through one of the Stoas or alongside the central pool is pure luxury as new perspectives along the box hedges and oleanders are revealed at each step. The walls of the Stoas are painted imitating ancient frescoes and the Doric columns on the garden side alternate with hanging bronze lamps whose light is dimmed by the alabaster “glass”. When visiting the villa at night, these lamps are lit and shine in a most intimate and melancholic way. The gardens and the pool are enhanced with faithful copies of original bronze statues. At the far end of this Peristyle, the Villa is luring with its clean white façade decorated with slender Corinthian columns. Even the blue skies and the light of Southern California are merging with that of Southern Italy. The illusion is perfect.

Once inside the Main Vestibule, the visitor is immediately taken by the overwhelming details of the geometric patterns of the marble walls which are in strong contrast with the floral ornamentation of the painted ceiling. The colored marble floors and white fluted columns make the picture complete. Looking back over your shoulder, the shimmering Pacific Ocean blends with pictures of the Mediterranean.

From the Vestibule, you step back into the daylight of the Inner Peristyle (actually copied from the House of the Faun in Pompeii) with its narrow pool guarded by five bronze female statues. This courtyard is surrounded by a roofed gallery supported by Ionian columns and otherwise decorated with stucco. To the left it opens up into the Atrium, the heart of the Roman house from where we can access a number of small rooms, which originally were meant as bedrooms. The Atrium is rather simple with its black and white mosaic floor laid out around a rectangular pool.

Behind the Inner Peristyle and following the straight line from the Main Peristyle Garden through which you entered, there is a temple dedicated to Heracles next to a small Basilica. The circular Temple of Heracles is domed and its floor is covered with a round spiral mosaic recovered from a sanctuary at Monte dell’Incastro in central Italy. The showpiece Hercules (Roman name for Heracles) is an original marble from 125 AD. The Basilica, on the other hand, is a gem by itself. The barrel-vaulted ceiling is made using coffered panels and supported by eight white marble columns dividing the Basilica in three naves. In between these columns stand a few marble statues, smaller than life-size, among which those of four gracious muses from Cremna in Turkey and dated to 200 AD. A true pleasure for the eye.

East and west of the back of the villa there is a garden, the west one serving as an herb garden – partially occupied by a tea room. Well, this was still the case when I visited the Villa before the Getty Center was built in 1997 to house the collection of European art that was crammed in the upstairs rooms of the Getty Villa.

It is obvious that I enjoyed the reconstructed villa far beyond its precious collection. I feel that the initial idea of Paul Getty was to build an environment that would be appropriate to house his selected artifacts. In my eyes, this is the true success of the Getty Villa.

But times have changed and today’s visitors have a different knowledge and background of antiquities. As a result, the new Getty Center was built on a grand location some 10 miles east of the Villa and this is where the entire European collection of paintings, sculptures, and furniture found an adequate space.

The Getty Villa, in turn, underwent three years of thorough restoration. Rethinking the entire layout, the upstairs’ space is now made available for the artifacts from ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, and the Etruscan civilization.  Today’s visitor will discover the collection in chronological order, starting with the Neolithic and Bronze Age (Cycladic, Minoan, Mycenaean), to continuing with the Greek art ranging from the Archaic period to the Classical and Hellenistic. He will end with the ancient Roman sculptures.

Parallel and complementary to the Villa’s collection, the Getty Villa will organize a number of exhibitions that will explore the exchange and influence of classical cultures with neighboring countries but also highlight the influence of the classical world on contemporary art.

As always, admission to the Getty Villa is free and an advance timed-entry ticket is required.

[The two top pictures are from Chasing Aphrodite; the bottom picture is from the Getty Villa blog]