Conquest and Empire. The Reign of Alexander the Great by A.B. Bosworth

Strangely enough, Conquest and Empire. The Reign of Alexander the Great by A.B. Bosworth (ISBN 0-521-40679-X) is on my bookshelves for years and it is one of those books that I consult on a pretty regular base when I need to elucidate a particular aspect of Alexander’s life. High time to add it to my blog-library!

The book is in fact split in two distinct sections.

The first part The Gaining of empire (336-323 BC) tells us about Alexander from his accession to the throne to his final year, i.e. his death. It is written in Bosworth’s unique style, crisp and clear, using sentences in which each word plays its role avoiding confusing or superfluous adjectives or descriptions.

The second half of the book, which appears under the title Thematic Studies, gives a detailed and extremely useful analysis of Alexander’s campaigns and the many facets of his life that have to be taken into consideration. Bosworth has divided these studies into four separate chapters:

A.  Mainland Greece in Alexander’s reign, generally covering the events in Greece while the king is marching east;

B.  Alexander and his Empire, shedding some light on the financial administration and the government of his newly acquired empire;

C.   Alexander and the Army, concentrating on the changes he has to implement in his armed forces as the clashes with the enemy move from organized battle formations to guerilla warfare;

D.    The divinity of Alexander, discussing divinity as perceived by the Greeks in general as well as Alexander’s self-proclaimed divinity.

Speaking for myself, I widely use this book as reference material and I’ve never been disappointed by Bosworth’s expert explanations and background research. Everybody wanting to learn more about Alexander than a mere succession of fights and battles should get a hold of this quality reading material.

Water laws, still unchanged after nearly two thousand years

The year is 144 AD, the location the city of Laodicea near Hierapolis (modern Pamukkale), the lawmaker Aulus Vicirius Matrialis who was State Governor under Emperor Antoninus Pius, and the law regulating the use and misuse of water is still very current. 

[Picture from Huriyet Daily News]

It reads as follows:

Those who divide the water for their personal use should pay 5,000 denarii to the empire’s treasury. It is forbidden to use the city water for free or to grant it to private individuals. Those who buy the water cannot violate the Edict of Vespasian; those who damage the water pipes will pay a fine of 5,000 denarii. The water depots and water pipes of the city should have a roofed protection. The governor’s office will appoint two citizens as curators every year to ensure the safety of the water resource. Those who have farms close to the water channels cannot use this water for agriculture.

These are the explicit does and don’ts as can be read on a marble inscription recently unearthed in Laodicea. It regulates the use of water running down the nearby Karci Mountains that was channeled through the city and that fed many of its fountains. The text was presented by the Laodicea Assembly to the proconsul of Ephesos for approval. This proconsul in turn approved the law on behalf of the Roman Empire. The fact that the law was supervised by Rome proves how important water management already was 1,900 years ago – maybe earlier than that.

Water was vital for Laodicea as it was (and still is) for any other city and it is not surprising that the fines were pretty steep. The basic amount of 5,000 denarii would represent more than 16,000 Euros in today’s money. Those who polluted the water, damaged the water channels or broke the water seals of the pipes could be fined 12,500 denarii, i.e. 40,000 Euros. The same penalty would apply to senior staff that overlooked the illegal use of water. It would make you think twice before tampering the water conduits! There was a system of justice in place also, for whoever denounced the polluters would receive one-eight of the penalty as reward.

The discovery of this law tablet is part of the ongoing excavations in the ancient city of Laodicea, exposing some 2,300 artifacts retrieved from among the monumental columns of the Sacred Agora, the Central Agora and the Stadium Street (see: Laodicea, great works inprogress!). It looks like one of those must-see places in Turkey!

The Symposium by Plato

The Symposium by Plato (ISBN 0-14-044024-0) is not exactly my kind of reading but it must be for those persons really interested in philosophy. I found the book at a fair for second-hand books and bought it because the subject is quite intriguing and I hoped to find out more about it. Besides that, Plato was the tutor of Aristotle who in turn was called to Macedonia by King Philip to teach young Alexander. Reason enough to have a close look.

The stage is set in Athens in 416 BC where a group of people from the upper class are coming together to eat, drink, and talk at the house of the poet Agathon. The other guests are Phaedrus, an aristocrat; Pausanias, the legal expert; Eryximachus, a physician; Aristophanes, the great comic poet; Socrates, the philosopher, and Plato’s teacher; and towards the end of the Symposium enters Alcibiades, a prominent statesman, orator and general – quite a mixed company.  It is being decided that, since they all recently have been drinking heavily, they will amuse themselves with talk in the form of a speech instead of the usual entertainment with flute girls and wine. Each participant will take his turn and the subject that is chosen is Love.

Each character evidently develops his own vision and opinion. Love as expressed during this symposium is mostly homosexual love between men as was current in classical Greece at that time. The one before the last speaker is Socrates who asserts that the love of wisdom is the highest level of love, introducing the bases for what is to be known later on as platonic love. At this stage, Alcibiades bursts in with some drunken companions and takes the lead. He sketches the character of Socrates and his own love and admiration for the philosopher. A last drunken party erupts and mingles, and in the end, some of the guests go home while others stay put and fall asleep. In the early morning hours only Agathon, Aristophanes, and Socrates are still awake, talking and drinking. The last “survivor” is Socrates who leaves the house as sober as when he arrived.

So much for the story itself, the philosophy has to be taken as it comes by those who want to linger on these deep reflections about the human soul. In Socrates’ speech, the question is clearly asked whether Achilles would have died to avenge Patroclus if he had not believed that his courage would live on in men’s memory. The desire for immortal renown and glory is the incentive for his action; he is in love with immortality. This book definitely leads to some deep reflection on the subject.

What I find interesting is the general concept of what we call homosexuality today and the intensity of shameless drinking. This is, of course, seen through the eyes of our modern society. True love between men prevailed and was accepted without question, something we should seriously consider when talking about Alexander’s love for Hephaistion. The heavy drinking that could go on for hours is another aspect of ancient life that we should take into account in Alexander’s life. He probably wasn’t drinking more or any less than his companions or his army buddies. Judging facts that happened more than two thousand years ago is extremely hard and I think in this aspect we could be a little more tolerant towards Alexander as a man. 

Gordion, a name with a resonance

The very name Gordion, the capital of ancient Phrygia, automatically raises images of King Midas’ Tomb and of Alexander cutting the famous knot making him the king of the world according to the legend.

Today, Gordion (approximately 58 miles southwest of modern Ankara) makes the headlines because a wooden tomb has been unearthed in a new tumulus where treasure hunters had started illegal digging. This is the second wooden tomb ever found, the first being the one attributed to King Midas, but both date back to the 8^th century BC. Serious excavations started here by the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara and hopes are high to find the remains of an eminent personality.

Fieldwork carried out in 2014 and 2015 has revealed the presence of 21 new tumuli in the area, bringing their total number to 124. I find this not really surprising for when I drove up to Gordion a few years ago I had been wondering about the many man-made hills in the otherwise flat landscape. A recent article in the Hurriyet Daily News discloses sites at the following locations: Yassihöyük, 87 tumuli; Şabanözü, 12 tumuli, and 2 mounds; Çekirdeksiz, 4 tumuli, and 2 mounds; Kiranharmani, 7 tumuli, and 1 mound; Beylikköprü, 10 tumuli, Ömerler, 2 tumuli; Sazilar, 1 tumulus; and Beyceğiz, 1 tumulus. Enough work for future generations, I’d say.

Gordion was the capital city of the land of the Phrygians who settled here in the early 9^th century BC and reached their peak a century later. Yet the country remained under constant enemy threat and it has been reported that the Cimmerians destroyed Gordion in 690 BC. When the Lydians in turn arrived, they rebuilt the city, but it was destroyed once again by the invading army of Cyrus the Great in 547-546 BC. From then onward, Gordion once again became a commercial and military center, this time as a satrapy in the Achaemenid Empire. The Persians even installed a garrison at Gordion, which was eventually overthrown by Parmenion, one of Alexander’s generals who spent the winter of 333/334 BC here with part of the army.  At the same time, Alexander marched through Lycia in the south to regroup with Parmenion the next spring. In 278 BC, however, the city was destroyed by the Gauls and totally abandoned by 200 AD.

The most famous king of Phrygia is beyond any doubt King Midas, best known in Greek mythology and famous for his ability to change everything he touched into gold. The story goes that one night he met the satyr Silenus and hoped to learn from his wisdom. He gave him food and drink and returned him to his companion Dionysus. To thank the king for his kindness, Dionysus granted him a wish. Although he was already famous for his wealth, King Midas obviously wanted more and received the ability to turn any object he touched into gold. The wish worked to perfection and consequently, all trees, flowers, fruits, and even the soil the king touched turned into gold. When trying to mount his horse, it too turned into gold. The worst happened when he sat down for dinner and all the tasty food instantly was transformed into gold. He realized his fate too late and suffered from hunger and thirst; his bed became hard as stone now it was made of gold. Sick with misery, he sought out Dionysus again asking him to reverse the gift. Luckily, Dionysus was very understanding and told him to wash in the Pactolus River in Lydia. As soon as he arrived, he jumped into the water washing away his curse. Part of the legend lives on as gold is still being retrieved from the river bed of the Pactolus.

On my tour In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great with Peter Sommer, I visited the tomb of King Midas in Gordion although some sources say that it is too old to belong to this king, although he might have built it for his predecessor, maybe his father. It is housed inside a huge tumulus, 53 meters high and approximately 300 meters in diameter. I didn’t know what to expect here, but once inside I saw walls made of wooden beams in the style of a log cabin in which an opening had been cut to access the burial room. The beams were heavily studded on all sides shortly after being discovered, originally because the tomb was flooded and later because the wood was being attacked by fungi and insects. In fact, the visitor only can see the thick wooden beams and is sadly not allowed inside the actual burial chamber.

That burial chamber measures 5.15x6.2 meters and is 3.25 meters high. Thanks to an analysis of the timber, the tomb has been dated to about 740 BC. Beside the bed on which the skeleton of a man of about 60 years was resting, the room was filled with bronze and brass vessels varying from huge cauldrons to smaller plates and beakers, ladders, fibulae, and exquisite inlaid wooden tables and stands. Of typical Phrygian origin are bronze belts, wooden and bronze animal figures, and geometric pottery. All the artifacts have been moved to the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Ankara and the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul.

So far no traces of the city have been dug up. Strabo describes Gordion’s location as close to a river, but over the centuries the nearby river has shifted and today’s level is about eleven meters higher. Yet, I do visit a site that might be Gordion – if not, evidently another important Phrygian settlement. There was a big outer city here, something in the style of Troy. The city gate had timber walls on the inside, which should help in dating it. The city’s ramparts on the other hand were made of two parallel stone walls and the inside space was filled with wood. The Cimmerians destroyed Gordion in 696 BC and the ensuing fire preserved these walls which were later covered with mud up to four meters deep. A new city was built by the Lydians in the same pattern on top of the existing remains. Otherwise, it’s difficult to figure out what has been excavated in spite that one of the large buildings could be the royal palace. The only recognizable features are the grinding stones that are nicely lined up for the occasion.

At the small local museum, I marvel at the Phrygian pebble mosaics from the 9^th century BC, tiny pebbles skillfully arranged in geometric patterns. There is also a collection of Phrygian terracotta roof tiles, gutters, and decorative plaques. It seems that the technique was invented in Greece around the middle of the 7^th century BC and that the idea had spread in Anatolia in the early 6^th century BC – an interesting way to date these architectural elements.

Upon his arrival at Gordion, Alexander joined up with Parmenion who had spent the winter in this area with part of the army. Also, the newly married men from Macedonia who had been sent home last winter arrived together with extra fresh troops to increase Alexander’s forces.

There is no trace of the place where Alexander cut the Gordian knot, of course. It just could be anywhere in the region. Why didn’t the ancient writer mention King Midas’ Tomb in connection with the knot that would have made things so much easier for us! 

I find myself in one of the strangest landscapes of Turkey, so flat, so barren, yet dotted with so many perfectly shaped cones, i.e. the tumuli that are still under investigation. It is hard to picture Strabo’s description of this being a naturally fertile land with many woods of pine trees and juniper.

Whether Alexander stopped purposely at Gordion to cut the knot is not certain, but he certainly could not have resisted taking up the challenge! According to the legend Phrygia in ancient times was without a king and an oracle had predicted that the first man entering the city with an ox-cart would become their king. It turned out to be a peasant farmer, named Gordias. Out of gratitude, his son Midas decided to dedicate the ox cart to their main god Sabazios. He tied the cart to a post using an intricate knot of cornel bark and it stood there at the palace for the next four centuries till Alexander arrived in 333 BC. Sources from antiquity do not agree with the way he “untied” this knot. 

Alexander must have had a very close look at it, but since the ends of the ropes were hidden he could not figure this out. Well, he was not going to give up and certainly didn’t want to lose face in front of his men and the newly conquered citizens. Some claim that Alexander simply pulled the pin securing the yoke to the pole of the cart, thus exposing both ends. A less plausible (but more theatrical) theory is that he simply sliced the knot with a stroke of his sword. It seems that the prophecy announcing that whoever untied the knot would become the king of Asia was born at that time. True or not, it does not really matter. At any rate, that very night a violent thunderstorm rumbled over Gordion, and Aristander, Alexander’s soothsayer, said this was a sign that Zeus (generally accepted as the counterpart of Phrygian Sabazios) was blessing the king with many victories.

Also worth reading The Gordian Knot, a vision.

Astrology and Astronomy, one and the same in antiquity

The subtitle could be: What a coin could tell us, for this is about a Greek coin minted around 120 BC showing King Antiochus VIII of Syria on one side but on the reverse we find the unusual picture of Zeus with a crescent of the moon above his head while his right arm is reaching out to a star (maybe the planet Jupiter?) hovering above the palm of his hand. It is a one-of-a-kind iconography, meaning that is was worth investigating further.

Antiochus VIII was king of the Seleucid Empire, which in his days had its capital in Antioch-on-the-Orontes at the border of modern Turkey and Syria. His empire was threatened by the expansionism of the Parthians in the east and that of the Romans in the west. He started his kingship at the side of his mother, Cleopatra Thea, a very domineering woman who had gone so far as to kill her oldest son so Antiochus could be the ruler of her choice. This did not reassure Antiochus who decided to put his mother to death in 121 BC.

[Picture from Unreported Heritage News]

The abovementioned coin is indeed out of common; maybe there is a meaning beyond the simple picture of Zeus. Dr Robert Weir, a classic professor with an interest in astronomy and ancient coins started to make some calculations to see what the sky of Antioch-on-the-Orontes would have looked like in Antiochus’ days. He found that on January 17, 121 BC, the planet Jupiter was blocked out by the moon, a phenomenon that today is called an “occultation”. When this occultation happened, the moon was in the constellation of Cancer, a very significant constellation. This was explained as a sign that a great king was coming, or would be born in Syria since the Cancer constellation governs that part of the world according to the ancient astrologers. 

Yet, there was more happening in the night sky at that time. Dr Weir discovered that another occultation of Jupiter happened within the year and just one week after the first one, there also was an occultation of Venus, considered to be a very good omen too. This was especially well received by King Antiochus ruling over his ever shrinking Seleucid empire barely delivered from his murderous mother.

But appearances are deceptive and the following years did not favour the king. His half-brother and cousin, Antiochus IX, claimed the throne and in the end what was left of the once proud Seleucid Kingdom was split between the two of them. Over the next few years several bad luck eclipses of Mars and Saturn lit the night skies. The final blow came in 114 BC, shortly before the coin was stopped being minted: the Moon eclipsed Mars and Saturn at the very same time. Such an eclipse happens only once in 2,000 years and is recorded as being about the worst omen one can get.

The death of Antiochus VIII was all but glorious; he was killed by one of his ministers in 96 BC. The Seleucid Empire was doomed. In 64 BC Pompey conquered Syria that became part of the Roman Empire.

The Oxus Treasure, pieces Alexander must have known

There is still a lot of guesswork about what Alexander knew about the world in general and of the Persian Empire in particular. To me, this is one of the most fascinating subjects and I keep trying to find answers. During my recent visit to the British Museum, I concentrated more closely on the so-called Oxus Treasure, the most important surviving collection of Achaemenid artifacts.

Evidently these objects were created when the Persian Empire was at its peak and roughly covered the same territory as Alexander would conquer shortly afterwards.

The Oxus Treasure probably belonged to a temple and was gathered over a longer period of time. It contains all sorts of objects like gold and silver vessels, a rich collection of coins, figurines, a model chariot, a gold scabbard, finger rings as well as miscellaneous personal objects – all found on the banks of the River Oxus, modern Amu Darya, the natural border between Afghanistan and Tajikistan with Uzbekistan. It is thought that the precious pieces were found at the site of Takht-i Kuwad, a major ferry point across the river in modern Tajikistan.

The story of this treasure seems to emerge from the Tales of 1001 Nights. It goes back to 1880 when a British officer in Afghanistan rescued a party of merchants that had been captured by bandits who took possession of their rich collection of gold and silverware. The officer helped them to recover their precious cargo and even purchased a gold bracelet from these merchants, but other pieces travelled all the way to India to surface at the bazaars of Rawalpindi. The Archaeological Survey of India and the curator of the local museum also acquired some of these objects, which eventually made their way to the British Museum.

Let’s have a closer look at some of these artifacts, which mainly belong to the 5^th-4^th century BC.

For a start, there is this slender cast silver statuette represented in a rather static pose closely related to early classical Greek statues. The man is wearing a typical Persian hat, but his naked body may indeed indicate a Greek influence. This is not surprising considering that the Persians invaded and occupied Greece under Darius I in 490 BC and again under Xerxes in 480 and in 479 BC. 

Next to this statuette stands another one made of cast silver as well. This one, in turn, is dressed and is holding either a bundle of sacred rods or a flower. It may represent a king as there is much likeness with the stone reliefs found at Persepolis.

More true to life are two heads made of beaten gold, one much larger than the other but both with lovely well-combed hair. The larger head shows, in fact, a beardless youth with holes in his ears and was probably wearing earrings. It may be part of a larger statue, perhaps made of wood that has disintegrated over the centuries.

Typical Achaemenid is the gold jug with a handle ending in a lion head at them rim. It has raised the possibility that the Oxus Treasure may not have been a temple dedication but should rather be considered as a source of currency. It was not an uncommon practice in antiquity to exchange goods against silver or gold objects which were simply valued according to their weight.

Also very recognizable and typical for the Achaemenid period are the different gold bracelets and armlets, especially those with the griffon heads. Often the eyes or other spaces were inlaid with precious stones. Many examples of such armlets have been reproduced on the walls of Persepolis and according to Xenophon they were among the most precious gifts exchanged at the Persian court. 

Noticeable are the coiled bracelets among other more elaborate examples. There is more jewellery, of course, but also an entire collection of gold knobs or buttons.

Another common item is the collection of bowls, particular the gold one with embossed lions walking on their hind legs and separated by drop motives.

Rather exceptional is the gold ceremonial scabbard for the short Persian sword known as akinakes, also represented in the reliefs at Persepolis. Only the thin gold layer that once covered the wood or leather support has survived, including its sublime scenes of a lion hunt. It also shows horsemen who curiously wear trousers in Persian fashion but hats that remind us of the Assyrians (although Assyrian art had disappeared for decades at the time this scabbard was made).

A true gem and eye-catcher is the tiny gold chariot pulled by four horses or ponies. Inside the chariot are two figures in Median dress, one seated on a little bench while the other is holding the reins. It is a very delicate and intrinsic piece of craftsmanship. Strangely enough, the front of the chariot shows the Egyptian protecting god Bes. How civilizations intermingle!

A gold vessel in the shape of a fish also catches my attention because of its elaborately carved scales. It probably was used to hold expensive oils. The loop on the side may have been used to hang it or served to attach a stopper now lost. It seems that the fish could be a carp.

Last but not least there is an entire series of about fifty gold plaques engraved with human figures in different positions and different dresses. They vary in size from less than 3 cm to nearly 20 cm and may have served as votive objects left in a temple or shrine. On one of the largest plaques, we recognize a Mede who seems to be involved in a religious ritual.

There are many more objects here at the British Museum from the Achaemenid period, all the kind of vessels and decorations Alexander must have found at any of the Persian palaces, from Susa to Persepolis to Pasargadae. I wonder how he would have reacted to this kind of art and to this wealth.

[Click here to watch more pictures from the BM]

Another Macedonian tomb open to the public in Pella

Another Macedonian tomb is being revealed, this time in ancient Pella. Sadly it opens to the public only until November 2015. Macedonia, as I found out over the decennia, is extremely rich in tombs and very well preserved ones for that matter. Yet since the financial crises started in 2011 most of them are closed to the public, so maybe you should rush out to see at least this new one while it is accessible?

[Picture from Archaeology News Network]

This new tomb definitely stands out as it is the largest rock-cut tomb in all of Greece and counts as many as eight chambers, whereas usually there are only one or two chambers. It has been determined that this was a family tomb used without interruption from the 4^th century BC till the second century BC.

It seems to be a very moving place to visit as the lighting inside gives the visitor the impression that he is descending into Hades. The entrance leads into a central rectangular chamber surrounded by openings in the walls where the dead could be laid to rest. These walls are plastered and painted in bands of black, blue, red and white, whereas the ceiling is in white.

It is not surprising that this tomb has been looted several times in the past, but it is not entirely stripped. Archaeologists recovered for instance three inscribed stelae, several clay vessels and figures, jewelry, as well as bits of a gold-plated wreath; copper coins, the usual fare of the dead to the underworld, were also found.

Archaeologists even deciphered the name of “Antigone, daughter of Aeneas” on a relief in the hallway. The additive ΗΡΩΙΣΣΗ after the name of the deceased indicates that we are dealing with a hero, a very common qualification in Hellenistic times. The relief shows Antigone with her maid holding a jewelry box and has been dated to the first quarter of the third century BC, although the inscription seems to have been added at a later date, probably in the first half of the 2^nd century BC.

More information about the occupants has been discovered as in the western wall, where an altar stone reveals the name of Nikostratos from Boeotia, daughter of Pythonos. This means that people from other regions had settled in Pella. The top of another marble stele carries the name of Kleonikis, daughter of Nikomachou. Some of the small figures that were unearthed here seem to indicate that one or more children were buried here. It can be concluded that the tomb belonged to a wealthy family, although the bone remains are too scant and in a too bad state of conservation to confirm their relationship.

Towards the end of the third century BC Macedonia was economically on its decline, a tendency that is clearly reflected in this tomb.