Excavations at Dascylium

We’ll remember that the city was the capital of Hellespontine Phrygia, which Alexander took after the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC (see: Heading for Dascylium and Sardes). 

[Picture from Archaeology News Network - Credit: Anadolou Agency]

This year, archaeologists recovered a relief from the 5th century BC, i.e., well before Alexander’s conquest, showing Greek soldiers trampled by Persian warhorses probably referring to one of the Graeco-Persian wars. They assume that the artist's purpose was not to glorify either army but to create a work of propaganda.

Unfortunately, the Archaeology News Network doesn’t tell us what led them to this conclusion. The pictures they released are not too clear as they show the team cleaning parts of the reliefs rather than the scene itself.

During their excavations, the archaeologists also exposed sections of a stone and mudbrick wall. This is a rare find from Phrygian times, i.e., the 8th century BC. The remaining wall is 40 meters long, five meters thick, and four meters high. However, because the mudbrick sections have not survived, the original height is estimated at seven or eight meters.

The collection ship rams from Egadi keeps growing

The number of ship rams recovered from the Egadi seabed keeps growing after each excavation season. My last count dated from 2019, when the counter had stopped at sixteen Roman and two Carthaginian rams (see: Still recovering ship rams from the Egadi Islands). 

Today's latest news is that two more bronze rams were excavated in 2021, bringing the total discovered to twenty-five. I must have missed last year’s discoveries. 

[Picture from The Archaeological Network - Credit RPM Nautical Foundation] 

It is incredible that the battle site at the Egadi Islands, where the Romans fought for supremacy over the Carthaginians in 241 BC, is strewn with so many shipwrecks. The ships themselves have, of course, disintegrated over the centuries, but the bronze battering rams remained intact. 

The sheer scale and rampage of this battle are beyond our imagination. Hundreds of ships sought to destroy their opponent by maneuvering in such a way that the prow of the ship where the ram was situated would hit the enemy in the flank and sink the vessel. The stakes were very high as Rome aimed to control the Central Mediterranean, where Sicily occupied a central position. 

The diving site of Egadi has yielded many more objects made of non-degradable material like bronze helmets and cheek-pieces, dozens of lead slinger bullets, together with Hellenistic and Roman coins. 

A vessel from the first half of the 4th century AD emerged from the same area. It appears to be a big merchant ship loaded with amphorae made in Lusitania (an ancient province in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula) and Baetica (in the most southerly corner of Iberia - Spain). 

After 16 years of diving, the archaeological site of the Egadi Islands has not disclosed all its treasures, and investigations will continue in 2022.

Imagine young Prince Alexander playing football

Sports occupy an important place in men’s lives from an early age onward. This statement is not new, for we are all very familiar with the Olympic Games held in Olympia as early as the 8th century BC. This four-yearly event included javelin throwing, running, long jumps, boxing, and chariot racing, but the list did not mention football. 

[Picture from The Greek Reporter]

The football first appears on a relief kept at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens. The picture shows a man balancing a ball on his thigh in front of a boy. The scene on the stone vase dates from the third quarter of the 4th century BC. 

We might assume that the man is showing his son how to control the ball looking with our modern eyes. It may be far-fetched, but the fact remains that since 1958 this very picture appears on the trophy cup for the winner of the UEFA European Championship. It was the work of a silversmith from Paris called Chobillon. 

The UEFA competition is held every four years, just like the ancient Olympic Games. The football tournament makes an obvious link with today’s Olympic Games as they took place in the same year. 

Given the date of the Greek vase, 400-375 BC, we may safely assume that young Alexander and his friends knew the game and probably also played it. 

In ancient Greece, the football game was called Episkyros and played between two teams of 12-14 players on each side. The material used to make the ball is unknown, but I’d be surprised it would bounce like its modern counterpart. One team was supposed to throw the ball over the other team's heads using hands and feet. A white line, the Skyros, was drawn to separate the teams and another line behind each group of players. The purpose of the team was to force their opponents over the backline. How that would show in scoring points is lost over the centuries.

Recent excavations in Myra and Andriake

Any excavation is a long process and none is ever entirely completed. Future generations deserve their part of the research, and modern technology will allow different approaches and views. This is also the case in Myra (see: Ancient Myra from Finike) and its harbor Andriake see: Andriake, port of Myra ). 

Last year (2021), work at Myra  was concentrated on the orchestra of the theater. It is quite exciting to hear that the excavators have reached the Hellenistic level. We will remember that initially the theater was Greek and that the Romans adapted it to their taste. Archaeologists dug to a depth of 4 meters where they unearthed Lycian structures. These obviously antedate Hellenistic times. 

Further excavations in Myra  are hampered by the fact that modern Demre is built right on top of the ancient city and expropriations are a sore subject – here as well as elsewhere. 

In Andriake, on the other side of the main road, archaeologists will pursue their digs in front of the Granary of Hadrian, which has been turned into a museum (see: Andriake’s granary to be turned into a museum and Andriake’s Museum has opened). It has been named The Lycian Civilizations Museum. Beside finds from Myra  and Andriake, it also contains finds from the entire region of Lycia.

The excavations of the main buildings in Andriake are said to be completed. Work will now be concentrated on the north and west of the city.

Focus on Paphos, Cyprus

Because of its copper mines, Cyprus occupied a prominent position in the manufacturing of armory, swords, and other objects in bronze since early antiquity (see: The role of Cyprus in Alexander’s campaign). As a result, all through history, many kingdoms and empires wanted to control the island. From Persia, Alexander the Great’s Macedonia, the Roman Empire into the modern dispute between Turkey and Greece, Cyprus was envied and fought over. 

First and foremost, Cyprus is the place where Aphrodite was born, so the legend goes. It is unthinkable to visit the island without stopping at the beach where Aphrodite rose from the sea, a spot that is forever marked by a boulder on the seashore. True or not, it is indeed a lovely place to enjoy by sunset. 

This beach is not far from Paphos, which offers many interesting sites worth visiting, especially since it was the first capital of Cyprus in the 4th century BC. By the time Rome annexed the island in 58 BC, Paphos had kept this privileged status till the successive earthquakes of the 4th century AD had destroyed it. It lost its position as capital, and Salamis replaced it. 

It is not surprising that the city of Paphos is rich with antiquities, although it takes some walking around to find them. 

The Agora, the very heart of ancient Paphos, has not much to offer except some foundations delimiting the open space and the surrounding porticos. The west side is best preserved, and it is here that we find the Odeon, which has undergone some restorations to fit various contemporary cultural events. This meeting place dates from the 2nd century AD. 

The theatre, in turn, was built around 300 BC and remained in use till the end of the 3rd century AD. It had gone through several stages of remodeling and renovation over the centuries and knew its heyday in the 2nd century AD when marble slabs enhanced the stage façade. It could seat as many as 8,000 spectators. Excavations are underway, and new information from the Australian Archaeological Mission may be revealed soon (see: Around the theater of Paphos). 

Most popular is the ancient city proper, with its impressive collection of mosaic floors. They all belong to the villas of those rich and famous Romans living in Paphos between the 2nd and 5th centuries AD. These outstanding mosaics representing scenes from Greek mythology are of much better quality and finesse than what we usually find in Roman art after the second century AD. They were created using a combination of tesserae and glass paste. 

The first villa to encounter is the House of Aion, only partially excavated, but it treats the visitor to a most spectacular floor mosaic from the 4th century. It is divided into several panels and shows The Birth of Dionysus, Leda and the Swan, the beauty contest between Cassiopeia and the Nereids, The Judgment of Marsyas losing the music contest to Apollo, and the Triumph of Dionysus. Every composition deserves our full attention since they are considered one of the most exceptional works of its time. 

The next villa is the House of Theseus, built at the end of the 2nd century AD on top of earlier Hellenistic and Roman buildings. This large villa that remained inhabited till the 7th century counted at least one hundred rooms, leading scholars to believe that this was the residence of the governor of Cyprus. Most of its floors have mosaics with geometric patterns, but three rooms stand out with their human figures. The oldest and most striking mosaic depicts Theseus and the Minotaur in a very recognizable labyrinth with Theseus at its center. It dates from the end of the 3rd/early 4th century AD, with major restorations probably carried out after the repeated earthquakes. The mosaic showing Poseidon and Amphitrite was created about a century later and seemed to belong to a bedroom. At the beginning of the 5th century, the reception area got a new mosaic floor where only Achilles’ first Bath scene survived. Another typical floor has a geometrical pattern with at its center a picture of The Three Horaes, goddesses of the seasons. 

Last but not least, the Villa of Dionysus also dates from the end of the 2nd century AD. The severe earthquakes of the 4th century destroyed it as well as much of Paphos. The construction is Graeco-Roman, with the rooms arranged around a central court. Mosaics in vivid colors cover most of the floors, and one blue vase particularly catches the eye. There are many lovely hunting scenes with tigers, bulls, and boars, and a collection of figures set in round and square frames, and, of course, several mythological figures. 

It is important to mention that Christianity settled in Cyprus in the early 1st century AD. We owe this early date to the Roman governor, Sergius Paulus, who converted to Christianity in Paphos. 

Although of a later date, we cannot miss the remarkable Panagia Chrysopolitissa. This massive basilica with seven naves was built with spolia from earlier buildings destroyed during the earthquakes of 332 and 342 AD. Excavations have revealed several geometric mosaics and remains of columns in different types of marble, including cipolin. Because of Paphos' dwindling population, the basilica was reduced in size at some time during the 6th century. By the 11th century, a small Byzantine church, the Agia Kyriaki, was built in the apse of the old basilica. The small church we see here today dates from around 1500 and still functions as an Anglican Church. Not far from the church, we notice the stub of a column, which reportedly is where St Paul was flogged while on his missionary tour of the island. 

Another intriguing place is a large pistachio tree covered with hundreds of pieces of cloth belonging to Agia Solomoni. The tree is said to be sacred and is still used by those seeking to cure eye problems. This ancient catacomb dates from Hellenistic times. 

In the end, Paphos has much more to offer than one we might expect at first sight. It pays off to venture out and about instead of following the beaten path of organized tours.

Trojan Horse found. Really?

Archaeologists, Turkish and others, believe they have unearthed the remains of the Trojan Horse within the walls of ancient Troy (see: Alexander sets out to cross to Asia). 

Their explanation, however, sounds rather vague as they mention dozens of fir planks and beams 15 meters long that were assembled in “a strange form.” Carbon dating, on the other hand, has “suggested” (not “confirmed”) that the wood, as well as other excavated artifacts, date from the 12th/11th century BC. This time frame matches that of the Trojan War. 

I wonder whether I am too demanding to expect that Carbon dating is precise. It either matches or it doesn’t. The argument used by archaeologists is that the structure of the wooden parts corresponds to the description of the horse as made by Virgil and Quintus of Smyrna (a Greek epic poet who continues the story of the Trojan War where Homer left off). In my eyes, that argument is entirely independent of chemical analysis and Carbon dating. 

Although this may be wishful thinking, archaeologists now consider that the wooden planks are indeed the remains of the Greek strategy to construct a horse to trick the Trojans. 

Two leading archaeologists, professors at the University of Boston, are stating they have a “high level of confidence” that the wooden finds are “linked” to the Trojan Horse. Once again, I am skeptical because “linked to” does not exactly mean “belong to.” 

The only substantiating fact appears to be the inscription on a damaged bronze plate discovered on the site, reading, “For their return home, the Greeks dedicate this offering to Athena.” Quintus of Smyrna refers to this plate in his epic poem Posthomerica. 

The myth around the Trojan Horse remains whole for the time being. Still, there is hope that the abovementioned excavations may shed more light on its mystery. 

[Article widely based on the Greek Reporter]

A rare Illyrian helmet

Even in antiquity, the world was much larger than we like to believe today. One such often ignored corner is the southern Adriatic, both on the Italian peninsula and on the eastern mainland of the Balkans. Nowadays, the latter is occupied from north to south by Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Albania. In antiquity, there were mainly the Illyrians. 

Archaeologists have unearthed a rare bronze Illyrian helmet to prove the inter-relations and connections between the countries mentioned above and Greece. It was discovered in a rock-cut tomb on the peninsula of Pelješac, roughly 70 kilometers north of Dubrovnik.  

Made for a Greek warrior, the tomb in Croatia dates from the 4th century BC. 

The Etruscans and the Scythians may have commonly used this open-faced helmet before finding their way to Illyria. Although this type of helmet disappeared from Greece in the early 5th century BC, it survived in Illyria till the end of the 4th century BC. 

Despite reports from archaeologists that this type of helmet is rare, I have seen several examples in Greek museums. For instance, this early Illyrian helmet from the 8th-7th century BC at the Museum of Olympia, 

and yet another Illyrian helmet with a funerary gold band at the Archaeological Museum in Thessaloniki 

I suppose the helmet is rare because it is found in Croatia? However, archaeologists claim that only forty such helmets exist in all of Europe. Maybe I was just lucky to find a few of those rare examples? 

Anyway, the cave also contained the grave of a woman who wore a bronze bracelet. The site yielded thirty vases, mainly of Greek origin, although researchers believe they come from Attic and Italian workshops. They probably are the most expensive vessels of the time. 

Scholars had dated these tombs to some time before the late 4th/early 3rd century, i.e., before the foundation of nearby Korčula, the first colony. 

All in all, these findings will lead to a new understanding of the southern Adriatic's role in history.

[Top picture, Credit: Dubrovnik Museums]