A personal approach to the cause of death for Alexander the Great

About two years ago, I posted a blog about the death of Alexander based on the analysis made by Dr Katherine Hall, a Senior Lecturer at the Dunedin School of Medicine and an academic of the University of Otago, New Zealand. Her conclusion was that the king did not die from excessive drinking, poisoning or any other disease, but from the neurological disorder called Guillain-Barré Syndrome, in short GBS (see: Did Alexander the Great die from an infection?) 

It so happened that a few days ago, I saw another article mentioning this diagnosis of Guillain-Barré Syndrome. It was published by the New York Post in early 2019, just like the one I commented on above. The title of their article Alexander the Great was ‘buried alive’ after disease paralyzed him was true propaganda to trigger the attention of the readers. 

This Guillain-Barré Syndrome rang a bell with me and I returned to my own blog to look at the many theories about Alexander’s death. In my previous research, I found that gastroenteritis was presented as the main cause for GBS and I had stopped there. This time, however, I started a new search. As a result, I found that Healthline as well as The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Strokes include a lung infection as a possible cause of GBS although the gastroenteritis is more widely quoted and admitted. This is very distracting because we are led to overlook this lung infection that is mentioned so casually.

At this point, I recalled how Alexander had been fatally wounded during the Malian attack and how he hovered for many days between life and death. An arrow, three feet long, had hit him piercing through his corselet deep into his chest above his breast. It has not been established whether the barbed arrow had been readily removed by Perdiccas who cut it out with this sword upon the king’s order or if it was skillfully operated by his physician. Alexander was hemorrhaging and lost a lot of blood. Because the arrow punctured the wall of his lung, the king was breathing air and blood through the cut, meaning that he suffered excruciating pain at each and every draw of breath. In time, his skin stuck to his lung and according to some sources the wound kept oozing a mixture of fluid and blood. History, afterwards, remained silent about the health conditions of the king.

It is clear, however, that Alexander never entirely recovered from this injury. His extensive march through the Gedrosian Desert will not have done him any good and the unhealthy conditions of the marshes surrounding Babylon were a fertile ground for infection. This is precisely what I was thinking of when I read that GBS may have been caused by a lung infection. His immune system had attacked his nervous system, which led to gradually paralyzing his body, including the eyes but not his brain! Hence the title of the article that Alexander was buried alive.

The death of Alexander remains shrouded in many mysteries because so much has been hushed and covered up. After the king was pronounced dead, we are flooded with stories of the many conflicts among his generals about his succession but it appears nobody showed any concern for Alexander’s body. None of the ancient authors like Arrian, Diodorus or Plutarch spend any ink on what happened next; they all remained silent about it. 

Only Curtius tells us what happened afterwards:“when at last his friends had leisure to care for Alexander’s lifeless body, those who had entered the room saw it corrupted by no decay, nor even by the slightest discoloration. The vigor too which comes from the breath of life had not yet left his face. And so the Egyptians and Chaldeans who were ordered to care for the body after their manner, at first, as if he were still breathing, did not dare to lay their hands upon him; then after praying that it might be right and lawful for mortals to handle a god, they emptied the body of entrails, the golden coffin was filled with perfumes, and the emblem of his rank was placed upon the king’s head”. 

This could mean that Alexander was in a coma during those days of neglect or that he was in a state of near-death. The medical knowledge of that time had no way to diagnose this as we would today. However, it is comforting to hear that the priests prayed that it might be right and lawful for mortals to handle a god before they started the embalmment. I like to believe that their prayers were answered.

Among modern historians and as far as I know; only Robin Lane Fox has put his worries about Alexander’s health in writing. He stated that the wound would hamper the king for the rest of his life and that walking would be “an act of extreme courage” – nothing less! Whenever possible, Alexander travelled by horse, chariot or boat. So much for the faithful reports of our historians!

In the end, it is my personal opinion that this Guillain-Barré Syndrome is a very plausible cause for Alexander’s death and not his presumed drinking bouts as advertized by ancient and modern historians alike.

All’s well that ends well

End of 2017, I wrote a post about Caligula’s megalomania (see: A sample of Caligula’s megalomania) and the pleasure vessels he built for his own entertainment at Lake Nemi, some 30 kilometers south of Rome. 

Caligula’s pleasure vessels were short-lived as he was assassinated about a year after they were launched. After being stripped of their precious content, they were intentionally sunk. Over the past 2,000 years, fishermen and treasure hunters regularly retrieved small treasures from the wrecks. Among those finds was a square piece of inlaid marble which features a geometric pattern using green and purple porphyry, serpentine, and molded glass. It was acquired by a private party in the early 1970s and was turned it into a small coffee table. 

Apparently, the owners were not aware of the mosaic’s origin until an unexpected encounter in 2013 revealed the true origin of the marble piece. 

Today, it has been announced that the looted treasure has been returned to Italy where it has found a place in the Museum of Roman Ships on the shores of Lake Nemi.

Corinth before the canal was built

 It is common knowledge by now that Corinth was famous for having two harbors. As the city is straddling the isthmus between mainland Greece and the Peloponnesus (less than 4 miles wide), it needed an access to both the eastern and the western side. 

Lechaion, looking towards the Gulf of Corinth, served the western sea routes to Italy, Sicily and beyond to Spain. The harbor of Kenchreai, in turn, is situated on the Saronic Gulf from where the ships sailed to and from the Aegean, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt. Before the modern canal was built, goods had to be transported overland from one port to the other. Lightweight and heavy warships were hauled using a platform along the road connecting Lechaion to Kenchreai. This road is known as the Diolkos. 

[Picture from Haaretz] 

For more than two thousand years this cobblestone road was the only means to move between the eastern and the western harbor of Corinth, unless one would round the Peloponnese peninsula, a long and risky detour of about 190 miles. 

Last year, a thorough restoration project was set in motion to protect this ancient roadway, which is still clearly visible in some areas. It ran over a distance of approximately 5 miles and had an amazing width that ranged from 3.5 and 6 meters. This marvel of technology appears to have been created at the end 7^th century/early 6^th century BC. It was meant to transport goods as well as warships across the isthmus, and functioned far into the Roman times. 

So far, about 1,100 meters of the western section of the Diolkos has been uncovered but it has not been traced on the eastern side at the Saronic Gulf. It seems that at its northwestern end, a paved platform had been constructed to tow the ships on land. With the help of cranes, they were then placed on wheeled structures and pulled by slaves using two main tracks running 1.5 meters apart. 

Although the Diolkos ran roughly parallel to the Corinth Canal, it did not follow a straight line. S-shaped turns in the road and grades of no more than 1.5% made progress hazardous. To keep the ships on the tracks, the road was studded at places with fortifying walls. A true prowess of engineering.

The mystery about Alexander’s Wall

What is known as Alexander’s Wall is a section of the Elburz Mountains located about five kilometers east of the Caspian Sea. From what Michael Wood showed us is his documentary In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great, it looked like a straight dike in the landscape. 

Although Alexander may have passed the Caspian Gates, the obvious opening in this wall during his pursuit of Bessus in 329 BC, there is no indication why this wall was named after him. He most probably had nothing to do with its construction, even if he is known for having built comparable defenses in Margiana. 

From the geographical and historical point of view, this wall separates the arid lands in the north where the Scythians used to live from the fertile lands to the south, which were overall in Persian hands. 

Recently, archaeologists established that at least a part of the wall can be dated back to the Achaemenid Empire (6^th-4^th century BC). Later research revealed baked bricks, which were carbon dated to 47-570 AD. This may well fit the theory that the construction of this wall took place under Khusrau I who ruled from 531 to 579 AD. This Sassanid King is known for having defended Hyrcania against the Huns of Central Asia. 

Research in the area is very difficult because over the centuries much of the stones and bricks have been removed to serve as construction material elsewhere. 

The link to Alexander, however, has been kept alive mainly through the Quran. Here it is said that Dhûl-Qarnayn (The Horned One) erected a large wall to keep out the Barbarians, which the Quran calls Gog and Magog. As we know, The Horned One is a name attributed to Alexander as son of the Egyptian god Ammon depicted with ram’s horns. 

If we follow what the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus wrote in the 1^st century AD, the Scythians crossed the passage in the wall which was used previously by Alexander, and shut the opening with iron gates. Also the Syrian Christians mention the story of Dhûl-Qarnayn shortly before it appeared in the Quran. It is reportedly based on a letter which Alexander wrote to his mother. This is not unlike what is mentioned in the Alexander Romance back in the original version from Alexandria of the 4^th century AD. This means that the story, true or false, existed already before it was included into the Quran.

However, history and legend once more go hand in hand when talking about this Alexander Wall because two more sites have been identified by that name. They are situated on the western side of the Caspian Sea as they blocked the passage across the Caucasus Mountains. The most favorite version is the one mentioned by Marco Polo as the Caspian Gates of Derbent. This wall stretches over a distance of 40 kilometers and is marked by 30 fortification towers. True or not, it is up to us to make up our own mind! 

Old Buddhist complex discovered in Pakistan

Alexander the Great and the later Greco-Bactrian Empire with its unique artistic expression eventually led to the emergence of the Kushan Empire that ruled much of modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India from 30 AD to 375 AD.

It is remarkable that the common thread through that part of history is Buddhism, which existed already in Alexander’s day and still lives on today. Hellenistic art, however, was soon picked up by the Buddhist sculptors and painters to explode in fascinating and vivid artwork that lived on to the end of Kushan dynasty in the Gandhara civilization. 

The Swat region in Pakistan is very remote and only occasional archaeological excavations have been carried out. Consequently, today’s discovery of a Buddhist monastery in Barikot (Bazira in antiquity) from the 1^st century AD is headline news. 

It is a vast complex in the center of a small valley composed of several stupas, meditation halls and a school where philosophy was taught. The Buddhist monks lived in small cells cut out of the mountain walls above. 

The most remarkable feature at this Abbasahib-China Buddhist site are the fresco paintings. Six of these figures are intact and depict Buddha in different poses, including the Namaste (greeting) pose. The frescos are not only rare, they are said to be unique since no other example of such wall painting have been discovered so far in the Gandhara  area. It is difficult to see the real beauty of these paintings because they are set in niches situated right underneath the ceiling. Scholars speak of a new chapter in the historical records of early Buddhism in Swat. 

Until now, it was believed that Swat and Gandhara  possessed an important painting school but this could not be documented until these intact murals were found. A serious plea is made to preserve this unique archaeological site! 

Overall, there seem to be approximately 150 Buddhist heritage sites in the northwestern corner of Pakistan alone, including the Swat Valley. So many treasures are still hidden and awaiting to be discovered!

[Pictures from The Archaeology News Network]

The Gate of Cyrus at Pasargadae (near Persepolis)

About five years ago, I mentioned that the foundations of a city gate had been discovered in Pasargadae (see: Archaeological research resumed at Pasargadae). At that time and pending further research, it was assumed that it had probably been built by Cyrus the Great to celebrate his victories.

By now, archaeologists have been able to prove that this gateway had indeed been built upon the orders of Cyrus and that it was actually used from the reign of his son, Cambyses onward. Although the article published in the Archaeology News Network speaks of a gate near Persepolis, it is clear that we are talking about the same monument. After all, Pasargadae lies only 40 kilometers from Persepolis.

This imposing gate measured 30 x 40 meters and once stood 12 meters high. It was entirely made of mudbricks which were covered with glazed bricks as we know from Persepolis, for instance. However, the composition apparently was inspired by similar decorations from Babylon where the lower section was embellished with lotus flowers and the higher portion of the wall displayed mythical animals.

The colors have faded dramatically but the outlines of the flowers and animals are not too difficult to recognize.

Also noteworthy is the fact that the central rectangular room of 8 x 12 meters bore cuneiform inscriptions in Babylonian and Elamite.

[Pictures are from the Archaeology News Network]

Excavations at the ancient city of Olba near Mersin

Neither the name of Olba nor the modern name of Uzuncaburç rings any bell with me. The city has been in the news lately because of the excavations that are scheduled to start this year (2021).

Olba is located off the beaten track, deep into the Taurus Mountains, roughly some 30 kilometers from Silifke. The oldest remains are visible down the deep ravine and seem to go back to the 6^th century BC, when Olba was the capital of the small kingdom of Neo-Hittite Pirindu, ruled by a certain Appuašu. The ruins of Hellenistic Olba are to be found about four kilometers further west and are blending in with those of the Roman Diocaesarea from the 1^st century AD.

The Acropolis was rightfully situated on top of a hill, 1040 meters above sea level. This made it an excellent observation post to see the enemy approaching from afar. The aqueduct and the cisterns that collected and distributed the precious drinking water to the Nympheums and onward are still very present. The water was taken from the Lamos River and was led through tunnels and over an aqueduct. This 25-meter-high aqueduct ran across the gorge of the Devils’ Valley and is 150 meters long. It was, in fact, constructed under Septimius Severus. This same water supply served to irrigate the surrounding fields.

Most of the city’s remains date from Roman times. The most striking monument is the rather well-preserved theater with a two-storey-high skene andt could seat 3,000 people. This is where the excavations will start later this year because much of the building stones are lying around after the walls collapsed as a result of an earthquake.

We also find an impressive Colonnaded Street, almost one kilometer long and still lined with many intact columns. The temple of Zeus has remarkably kept its temenos and monumental entrance gate. An inscription on the surrounding wall has revealed that Seleucos I Nicator was responsible for repairing the roof of this temple. These lines, by the way, confirm that Olba was already a sacred city in his days!

There also is a temple dedicated to Tyche, two city gates known as the Ceremonial Gate (7 meters high) and the Victory Gate, a great number of workshops and residential buildings. Outside the city limits lies the necropolis with a wide assortment of rock-cut graves, sarcophagi and other funeral monuments.

Rather than focusing on the archaeological treasures which Olba/Diocaesarea may reveal, Turkish authorities keep insisting on the tourism. If the site is worthwhile – as everything tends to indicate – tourists will come anyway