From GPS to GPR. A new technology

By now, GPS technology has become a household item, and GPR is opening new ways for us to explore, although with a different purpose.

GPR stands for Ground Penetrating Radar, a technology that allows us to actually “see” remains of buildings that are still hidden deep underground. This procedure is particularly interesting in those cases when a site cannot be excavated either because it is too large or because the remains are buried underneath modern cities or constructions. An extra bonus is the fact that the pictures taken by GPR are rendered in very high resolution.

The process looks rather simple since GPR works like regular radar but can reflect the pictures from different depths. The instrument can be attached to a quad bike and run over the terrain that needs to be investigated.

[Ground Penetrating Radar map of Falerii Novi, Italy. (Credit: L. Verdonck)]

This GPR recently made headlines when archaeologists surveyed the hidden site of Falerii Novi situated some 50 kilometers north of Rome. So far, they have been able to recognize the market, a bath complex, a temple and several other public monuments. What’s more, they could even study how the city evolved from its foundation in 241 BC till it disappeared around 700 AD. It extended over a surface of 30 hectares, which equates about half the size of Pompeii.

The study also revealed that the layout of Falerii Novi is far less conventional than that of other known towns. Moreover, it appears that the architecture of the buildings is more elaborate than what we would expect from a small city like this one.

At the southern end of Falerii Novi, the GPR has pinpointed a large rectangular building that is connected to a series of water pipes leading to the aqueduct. The pipes could be traced further as they run beneath houses and not only through the streets as one would expect. The rectangular construction may well be a public pool.

In the end, of course, GPR does not replace hands-on excavations, but diggings can focus on specific areas and constructions as they will immediately fit into the broader overview of the site. At present, the data is being analyzed manually, which is very time-consuming. Scholars are working on developing some new automated techniques to speed up the process.

Similar surveys have been tentatively carried out at Interamna Lirenas (south-east of Rome) in Italy and in Alborough, Northern Yorkshire in the UK. Still researchers are aiming to use GPR to survey major cities as well. Their ambition includes sites like Miletus in Turkey, Cyrene in Libya, and Nicopolis in Greece, which are all spread out over a vast area. 

Personally, I would like to consider places like Damascus, Cairo, and Ecbatana,  which are entirely hidden by modern constructions. Unfortunately, the local governments inevitably have the final say.

Buried secrets of Heliopolis

Heliopolis, the City of the Sun, was the religious center of Egypt for more than 3,000 years. Unfortunately, the only surviving testimony of this glorious past is the obelisk of the Temple of Ra-Atum on the outskirts of modern Cairo. This 21-meter-high red granite needle was erected by Sesostris I, who reigned from 1971 until 1926 BC.

What brings me to Heliopolis is Alexander, of course. After entering Egypt at Pelusium, his fleet sailed up the Nile to Memphis while he led his troops on foot to Heliopolis. Arrian simply states that the king arrived at Heliopolis and proceeded from there to Memphis to make his offerings to Apis, the sacred bull.

These lines raise many questions. In my mind, it would be evident that Alexander would seek the blessing of the gods to be enthroned as the new pharaoh of Egypt. Strangely enough, I found nothing in our historical sources to confirm this. Moreover, there is a general tendency to place his official proclamation as pharaoh in Memphis instead.

The fact remains that Alexander saw the City of the Sun still in its full glory with its countless temples and at least 30 towering obelisks. The sunrise over Heliopolis must have been a sight for sore eyes when the first sunrays hit the golden pyramidal point on the obelisks! For centuries, Heliopolis had been the old religious center for the Egyptians. Every pharaoh made it to the sacred city where the gods would confer him their power. So, what happened? Why did this practice change? And more importantly, when did this change occur?

According to the Egyptians, in the beginning, there was the Ocean. Atum was the first god who existed, but nobody knew. Atum rose from the primeval waters and settled on a hill he had created. From his body emerged the first godly couple: Shu, the god of air, and Tefnut, the goddess of fire. They, in turn, gave birth to Geb, the god of war, and Nut, the goddess of heaven. Their children were Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephthys. These nine gods and goddesses ruled the world, and much later, they transferred their power to the pharaoh. This is how the legality of the king was tied to his ancestral link to the gods. The sun, Ra, of course, occupied the primary role. Hence the name Atum-Ra or Ra-Atum is used when referring to the first god.

The oldest inscription to that effect carries the name of Djoser, who, in the first half of the 2700^th century BC, recognized the importance of Heliopolis and built several monuments in that city. About 2100 BC, Thebes erected its principal temple to Amon-Re, inspired by the largest temple of Heliopolis. When he became pharaoh in 1353 BC, Akhenaton ordered the destruction of all the existing temples in his empire, except those of Heliopolis.

Another unusual situation developed when the Nubian Piankhi conquered Egypt in 744 BC. As a non-Egyptian, he definitely needed to be recognized and legitimized as the new dynastic ruler. Heliopolis still played its role and confirmed Piankhi as the new pharaoh of Egypt.

The Persians, who invaded the country in 525 BC, had no intention whatsoever to submit to the Egyptian gods. They plundered and raised the sacred enclosure by one square kilometer. Somehow Heliopolis managed to recover and build or rebuild several temples. The last pharaoh in Heliopolis's records is Nectanebo in 379 BC. He could avoid a new Persian attack in 374/373 BC. His son ruled for only two years, as his brother betrayed him and put his son on the throne. This was Nectanebo II, who was defeated by the Persians at Pelusium in 343 BC. This was the situation when Alexander arrived in Egypt in 332 BC to become the new pharaoh.

From the above history, we know for sure that at the end of the 4^th century BC, Heliopolis still functioned as the sacred city where the new pharaoh was confirmed in his functions. It does not sound too far sought to assume that Alexander went to Heliopolis just for that purpose. Why else would he have traveled that way? If his intention was not to be confirmed as pharaoh in the City of the Sun, he could have sailed down to Memphis directly instead.

Arrian's reference to Alexander's sacrifices to Apis in Memphis may make us assume that the ceremony was tied to his official recognition as pharaoh. But that is not necessarily the case, for this protocol could have been performed in both locations. On the other hand, it is plausible that Arrian living in the 2^nd century AD, mentions Memphis because, in his days, Heliopolis no longer played any role. It has been established that Alexandria eventually became Egypt's political capital under Ptolemaic rule and Memphis' religious capital. Heliopolis was slowly abandoned, it seems. The reason for this shift remains obscure.

The city of Heliopolis is enigmatic because close to nothing remains for us to see. The constructions that survived after the site was abandoned in favor of Memphis were mainly taken down, and the ready construction material served to build medieval Cairo. The stones used at Heliopolis came from a local quarry of quartzite that appeared in a rather unique shading of colors. The top layer was beige, the middle one dark brown, and the bottom pink. Despite this gradation, it is nearly impossible to track down these blocks as they were randomly inserted in medieval and later buildings. Heliopolis thus emptied of its walls, and statues eventually disappeared from the surface of the earth.

Recently Heliopolis has been in the news because the empty parcel of land next to the lonely obelisk is to be turned into a building site. Suddenly, rescue excavations are taking place to map the scant remains still hidden in this tiny section of the ancient city. I'm afraid the results will be meager, but every little bit of information will contribute to creating a valuable picture of this majestic old city.

Another aspect that deserves to be underscored is that Heliopolis was a notorious learning center. Its so-called House of Life was a meeting place where the priests studied philosophy, astronomy, and theology. Many Greeks like Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, and Solon consulted the available library that contained the entire history of Egypt. This seat of learning was eventually moved to Alexandria once the city was completed. However, it is unclear whether Heliopolis and Alexandria shared a similar interest or if the House of Life was transferred entirely to Alexandria to become its Museum (see also: Libraries in Antiquity, a short overview).

The ultimate fate of Heliopolis remains obscure because no systematic excavations could be carried out underneath modern Cairo. Also, many decorative elements from Heliopolis have been moved elsewhere.

 The Ptolemies brought many sphinxes from Sun City to Alexandria. Obelisks were an eye-catcher that impressed the world, and they were carried away as booty. Italy, with its Roman heritage, may possess the most significant collection. Rome, for instance, has examples standing in front of the Pantheon, at the center of the Piazza del Popolo and the Piazza Montecitorio, outside their central train station, and in front of the Basilica of the Vatican. Florence displays an obelisk in the Boboli Gardens of the Palazzo Pitti. One of "Cleopatra's Needles" arrived in London from Alexandria, and another traveled to New York to be re-erected between Central Park and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Istanbul has yet another obelisk standing at the center of the ancient hippodrome.

If such widespread plunder has been traced for the obelisks and the sphinxes, who knows what happened to Heliopolis' rich collection of statues, reliefs, and other decorative elements!

Let’s bring a toast to Alexander

Today we are celebrating Alexander’s birthday, as we did before and will continue doing in centuries to come.

For the occasion, I pulled out a special bottle. No, it is not going to be wine this time but vodka. Why not?

Over the centuries, many alcoholic beverages were created based on fermented cereal grains or different kinds of fruits. Vodka as such was documented for the first time in the 8^th century, but I’m sure many varieties were tried, tested and tasted much earlier – be it only for medicinal purposes.

What brings me to linking Alexander’s birthday to vodka is this special bottle I received during my stay in Uzbekistan. This country is at the heart of Central Asia, home to the Sogdians and Bactrians, and the birthplace of Roxane.

It so happened that I met a guide who was very interested in Alexander the Great as well, and we exchanged many stories – true historical events or local legends. One day, he confided to me that he had reached the same age as Alexander when he died and admired how much the young king had accomplished in comparison. It made him feel jealous and envious. What a way to look back at your own life!

When we said our goodbyes, he treated me to a bottle of vodka, the national drink of Uzbekistan. His gift, for me, had a more profound significance because the label said The Great Alexander. The slender white opaque bottle displayed the silver image of the king set a circle with a Greek meander. The bottom edge of this Premium Classic is decorated with a continuous black frieze of Macedonian infantry and cavalry led by a very recognizable Alexander on horseback. What a magnificent token of friendship that was!

Useless to say that the vodka has been savored since, but the bottle still occupies a place of honor. After all, using Alexander as an emblem on their native drink testifies of the Uzbek reverence for the conqueror. Isn’t it amazing and heartwarming to witness such respect and admiration from a people that submitted to a foreign ruler?

HAPPY BIRTHDAY, DEAR ALEXANDER!

Climate change in antiquity and its economic consequences

Although political and social unrest during the 1^st century BC transpires from our recorded history, the underlying cause was not known. People understandably blamed the gods, the priests, and/or their leaders. In our 21^st century, we are able to pinpoint the true culprit, a rather unknown volcano in Alaska, the Okmok. 

Analyzes of the volcanic records in six separate cores taken from the Greenland ice cap have revealed two major volcanic eruptions that occurred approximately 8,300 and 2,050 years ago.  In-depth research enabled scientists to establish a more precise date in early 43 BC. As a result, the years 43 and 42 BC were among the coldest recorded in the last 2,500 years and started one of the coldest decades. The eruption led to colder seasonal temperatures in the Mediterranean region for at least two years.

[Timeline showing European summer temperatures and volcanic sulfur and ash levels in relation to the Okmok II Eruption and significant historic events of the Roman Republic and Ptolemaic Kingdom from 59 to 20 BCE [Credit: DRI]. From The Archaeology News Network]

Time-wise, this natural catastrophe coincided with significant historical events. Only one year before, Julius Caesar had been assassinated leaving the Roman Republic in utter turmoil. The state affairs somehow stabilized when Octavian proclaimed himself emperor of Rome in 27 BC. In the meantime, Cleopatra had been struggling to restore power in the Eastern Mediterranean. By 31 BC, she had to surrender to Octavian who took the title of Augustus Caesar as he founded the Roman Empire.

The problems Cleopatra had been facing were not only of political order. Egypt was suffering because the Nile failed to flood in 43 and 42 BC. Today we know that the eruption of the Okmok affected the Nile watershed. The scarce rain in some areas was not enough to replace the annual Nile River flood, causing food scarcity, famine, and disease. These facts have been confirmed by archaeological and written sources, but until now they were not linked to a volcanic eruption in the faraway Aleutian Islands. Further research has established that for at least two years, temperatures in certain Mediterranean regions fell nearly 7 degrees Centigrade below the normal average.

A local Egyptian governor left us an inscription dated about 39 BC, in which he describes his struggle to find food for the population as there had been no flooding of the Nile for several years. In this text, even the priests recognized this man to be a true savior of the people. Coming from them, clearly underscores the seriousness of the situation.

In the end, had Cleopatra and the Roman rulers known about the explosive eruption of that Alaskan volcano, there is nothing they could have done to avoid the famine and the chaos in their countries. With hindsight, however, we may – I think – be a little milder in judging their leadership. 

As recent as July 2008, the Okmok erupted again for five consecutive days reshaping the volcanic cone dramatically. Altogether, it remained active for a full month. However, I have not come across records of regional or widespread influences on the climate.

More petrified trees on Lemnos this time

In the central part of the island of Lemnos, an eight-meter-long petrified tree trunk has been unearthed.

Together with Lesbos, Lemnos is one of those rare sites where petrified trees have been found on a regular base. This example was discovered during maintenance works outside the Petrified Forest of Lemnos, which covers a surface of approximately 4.5 hectares.

[Picture from The Greek Reporter.] 

The tree is estimated to be some 20 million years old and believed to be a sequoia. Nowadays we know the giant sequoia trees from the protected forest in California, the sole place where this tree is still “alive” today. The scholars are very excited about the sequoia bark which is so well-preserved.

Further study has revealed that standing and lying petrified trees have also been discovered at the bottom of the sea between the island of Lemnos and Lesbos.

I can’t help wondering whether petrified wood was on the botany charts of Aristotle, hence whether Alexander knew about them as I mentioned earlier after my own discovery in Tychero, Thracia (see: About petrified trees in Greece). It may be asking too much, however, for how would they know about the subtropical climate with palm trees that existed in that area more than 20 million years ago?

Reading the invisible with high tech imaging

Modern imaging technique is still in infancy, it seems, and new approaches with new results are discovered on a regular base.

One of the latest I came across is MSI, Multispectral Imaging Work, where objects are photographed under individual colors of light including some that are not perceived by the human eye. By using MSI, it is possible to isolate the picture one single color at the time. At this stage, the computer is set to work to determine the differences and pull out the subtle details we otherwise could not see.

[Picture from Duke Universities Library]

The technicality of this procedure is very well detailed in this article published by The Daily Mail.

One of the amazing aspects is that this technique allows us to read texts that have been erased previously and written over later on. It also is very useful  in finding hidden texts on ancient and reused parchments.

We leave no man behind

The phrase and what it stands for hit me the other day when I followed the story of an elite group of British military trying to make it out alive across the Iraqi border into Syria. These men belonged to the Special Forces of the S.A.S. (Special Air Forces) on a rescue operation.

The concept of nemo resideo translated as “leave no one behind” seems to disappear in the dawn of time. However, it may have been revived during recent conflicts like the Vietnam War and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. No matter when or how it originated, the very core of these words led me to Alexander. It was something he could have initiated if it not already existed.

As I was pondering the matter, I remembered Alexander’s march across the Karakum Desert towards the Oxus River. Over a distance of roughly sixty kilometers, the troops trudged over endless treeless hills dotted with rare green vegetation. In this “pebble desert”, they fell short on water, and some men broke into the wine and oil provisions making their situation far worse. They all struggled to keep moving, and some were maddened by thirst and lost their sense of orientation. When Alexander finally reached the river banks, he ordered to light huge fires to bring those who lost their bearings back on track. Comrades ran back and forth to carry water to the stragglers. With his usual determination, Alexander encouraged his troops to keep going. He wasn’t going to leave anyone behind if he could help it.

But after all, this may not be entirely Alexander’s doing. The bulk of his troops had campaigned with his father, who created the first professional army ever. Most men had been fighting together for ten or twenty years already by the time Alexander took over the general command. They had shared the sores of long marches under all weather conditions. They had shared their food, their sorrows and miseries, as well as their dreams and their secrets. They had cared for each other’s wounds and got drunk together. Most importantly, they had learned to rely on each other. They knew the others as they knew themselves. They were a real band of brothers.

Campaigning with Alexander had tightened that brotherhood as he added ever more years of service to those which his seasoned soldiers had already computed. Marching on with their king, the men always had to be alert of the almost daily dangers. These dangers could take many forms. The men had to face hostile tribes, rivers in spate, scorching deserts, dilluvian rains, thunderstorms, ice and freezing cold, earthquakes, wild animals. The list is endless, so it seems. If the soldiers could not rely on each other, they could not survive. It was as simple as that. They would never leave any of their buddies behind if they could help it. Staying together and caring for their comrades was a matter of pure necessity.

Another event that came to my mind is the ambush set up by Spitamenes in Bactria where Alexander’s troops were caught in a guerrilla war. The confrontation ended in a pure massacre as only some 350 men out of the 2,300 sent on the mission survived. There was nothing Alexander, who was still recovering from his wounds and dysentery in Alexandria Eschate, could have done to rescue them. The king never sent his men on a suicide mission. Loosing so many good men hit him hard but all he could do was to avenge their death. In his anger, he ordered to sweep up the entire valley of the Polytimetus River. His instructions were clear, every house and every village should be taken down, all the crops burnt. The enraged Macedonians didn’t hesitate to execute their orders. Taking revenge was something they understood all too well.

In modern warfare, the US Army personnel are expected to live by what’s called the Soldiers’ Creed. Its last version from 2003 reads as follows:

I am an American Soldier.

I am a Warrior and a member of a team.

I serve the people of the United States, and live the Army Values.

I will always place the mission first.

I will never accept defeat.

I will never quit.

I will never leave a fallen comrade.

I am disciplined, physically and mentally tough, trained and proficient in my warrior tasks and drills.

I always maintain my arms, my equipment and myself.

I am an expert and I am a professional.

I stand ready to deploy, engage, and destroy the enemies of the United States of America, in close combat.

I am a guardian of freedom and the American way of life.

I am an American Soldier.

Times have really changed for if the concept would certainly have appealed to Alexander and his Macedonians, I’m sure they didn’t feel the need to express it in so many words or to spell it out in writing. They simply knew their duty and what was expected from them and they certainly would give their all under any circumstance.