More mysteries surround the Riace bronzes

The Riace bronzes have kept scientists and archaeologists busy ever since the statues were fished from the sea at the southern tip of Italy in 1972. 

Of course, they have been cleaned and studied from every possible angle to find a prominent place in the National Museum of Reggio Calabria (see: More about Magna Graecia: a testimony from Calabria and More antiquities in blasting color). 

One would assume that all the questions about these magnificent statues have been answered, but there still is a long way to go. 

For instance, we don’t know whether we have a pair of bronzes, and, if so, who are they? Based on their appearance, scholars are pretty sure they were created in Attica or in Argolis. However, as they are both nudes, they could represent heroes or gods. Studies have, so far, pointed towards Agamemnon and Ajax, Tydeus and Amphiaraus, or Achilles and Patroclus. 

Dating these masterpieces is another challenge, although it is generally accepted that they belong to the fifth century BC.

[Picture from Bensozia]

Polygyros in Chalcidice

Polygyros in Chalcidice is in the news since its Archaeological Museum has reopened after being closed for twelve years to upgrade it to today's standards. 

Chalcidice is the three-fingered peninsula just east of Thessaloniki in Northern Greece, famous for its exotic beaches and natural landscapes. It is a popular vacation destination for people from Balkan countries, Austria, and Germany. 

Polygyros is situated at the peninsula's center, with easy access to notorious antique sites like Olynthus, Potidea, and Stagira. It is also close to the narrow where King Xerxes I of Persia dug a canal across the most easterly finger (Mount Athos Peninsula) during the Second Persian War in 480 BC (see: Stagira, the Birthplace of Aristotle). 

I vividly remember visiting the Museum of Polygyros when I toured around Chalcidice. I was determined to see the arrowheads from Olynthus (see: Olynthus and its houses), with their unique inscription ΦΙΛΙΠΠO (Philippou), meaning from Philip. It had taken Philip of Macedonia nearly two years to conquer Olynthus, and his army apparently had quite a sense of humor. The siege ended in 348 BC, after which Philip razed the city to the ground. 

Another treasure at the museum is the surviving part of Philip's treaty with the Chalcideans. Alarmed by Philip's policy after he occupied Amphipolis in 357 BC, the Chalcidean allies and the Olynthians concluded a treaty with Philip against Athens, who had refused an earlier proposition. To seal their agreement on the treaty's terms, the two parties solemnly swore by Zeus, Gaia, Helios, and Poseidon. 

Three copies of this treaty were made, and the Chalcideans would display theirs at the Temple of Artemis in Olynthus, and Philip would do the same in the Temple of Zeus in Dion. They jointly would exhibit a third copy in Delphi after having it ratified by the gods. 

Strolling further through this small museum, I discovered several artifacts worth my attention. There was, for instance, a terracotta Niké from Sane, 6^th century BC, a lion spout from the Temple of Ammon-Zeus in Kallithea, 5^th century BC, and a piece of cornice from an archaic sanctuary in Stagira, 6^th century BC. Last but not least, an exciting collection of silver and copper coins that was unearthed in Stagira, mainly carrying effigies of Macedonian kings. There were also coins from other cities like Akanthos (modern Ierissos), Sermyle, Skione, and Ouranopolis on the Chalcidice, and from more distant Amphipolis, Pella, Thessaloniki, Corinth, etc. 

These treasures may be dwarfed in the museum that has been enlarged to accommodate an extensive donation of more than one thousand artifacts. The generous benefactor is Iraklis Lambropoulos, who donated the collection his father, Ioannis, had gathered in the 1930s. In fact, he gave it to the Greek State, provided it would be displayed at the Archaeological Museum of Polygyros. 

Today's visitor will see finding from excavations carried out throughout Chalcidice dating from the Palaeolithic to the Archaic, Classic, Hellenistic, and Roman eras. Special attention is drawn to an unfinished kouros, which may have escaped my attention or is entirely new. Noteworthy is also a marble head of Dionysos from Aphytos, 4^th century BC, two marble grave statues from the Heroon of Stratoni, 1^st century BC, and the artifacts unearthed in Olynthus and its cemetery. 

It is obvious that I should visit this museum the next time I am in Chalcidice.

More excavations in Hierapolis

Hierapolis is much lesser known than Pamukkale, the hot water springs that are slowly swallowing the ancient city once built next to this natural phenomenon (see: Hierapolis, stepchild of Pamukkale). 

The original city grew around a temple erected close to the thermal springs in the first half of the 7th century BC. Hierapolis, meaning “sacred city,” was founded in 190 BC by Eumenes II, King of Pergamon then. 

Recent excavations have been carried out in private houses north of the city, close to the agora and the theatre. These were small residences believed to be meant for four to seven people. Inside, archaeologists found small items like coins, ceramics, and lamps. Based on finds such as a round millstone and traces of olive oil production, it was believed that Hierapolis was an important rural town. 

Besides the houses near the theater, further restorations and diggings were carried out at the Martyrium of the Apostle Philip, the theatre, the Monumental Fountain, and the Sanctuary of Apollo next to the Plutonium. This monument has been considered the Gateway to Hades because it is built over a seismic fault emitting toxic gasses. 

Hierapolis was abandoned after the severe earthquake of the 7th century AD, during which the marble portico of the Temple of Apollo collapsed into the spring waters of the nearby Nympheum. 

Today, visitors are welcome to swim between the idyllic marble columns among luxuriant flowers and bushes of pink laurel.

Recent excavations in Selinunte

Recent excavations in Selinunte (ancient Selinus), one of Sicily’s most precious sites, have exposed what appears to be the largest Agora of the ancient world. 

This trapezoidal Agora covering more than 3 hectares, lies at the heart of the ancient settlement that goes back to the 6^th century BC. It was surrounded by shops and houses, revealing that the city traded goods with the entire Mediterranean. So far, only one archaeological feature was discovered under the agora: an empty tomb in the middle of the square, perhaps belonging to its founder. 

During the pandemic, all activities had stopped, but the archaeologists resumed digging in the area of the Acropolis in June 2022. 

The excavations started at the southern end and were centered on two temples defined as A and O. In my earlier blog Selinunte died tragically not unlike Pompeii, I explained that temples in Selinunte were named using a letter since they had not been closely identified. 

For many years, it was believed that temples A and O had been built at the same time, i.e., between 490 and 460 BC. They were, in fact, almost identical to each other. Both were 40.20 meters long and 16.20 meters wide, with columns rising up to 6.23 meters. They were tentatively attributed to the Dioscuri and Poseidon. New excavations provided evidence that Temple A is actually older than O. Besides, Temple O was never finished because a landslide interrupted its construction. Interestingly, the pronaos of Temple A yielded Punic statuettes, such as that of the goddess Tanit. 

Back in 2018, the plans were to re-erect the first columns of Temple G, which is situated further east and outside the precinct of the Acropolis. The temple is tentatively attributed to Zeus because of its imposing size: 109 meters long and 45 meters wide. The huge drums of the columns lie around randomly, and the cost of repositioning one column is estimated at 180,000 euros. I have no idea whether this operation was successful. 

Temple R (also known as E) from the 6^th century, possibly rebuilt after being destroyed by the Carthaginians in 409 BC, yielded one-half of a sizable stone mold used to create a bronze scepter. This is an exciting find because ten years ago, the other half of this mold was found nearby. It appears that being such a precious artifact, the two halves were buried in a different location to avoid replication. Other discoveries were an amulet in the shape of a falcon representing Horus made of Egyptian blue and arriving from Egypt in the 7^th century BC, and the refined miniature of an ivory siren probably from the 6^th century BC from Greece since its quality is comparable to similar finds at the Oracle of Apollo in Delphi. 

[Picture from Ansa Italia]

Further excavations around Temple R exposed remains of a boundary wall from 610 BC, i.e., not long after the first colonists’ arrival. 

More important, is the discovery of an underground aquifer under the foundations of Temple A. It confirms that the initial Greek colonists settled precisely south of the Acropolis, meaning that ancient Selinunte was born here. 

On the other hand, thermal images have revealed an original water system running from Temple M on the west bank of the Selino River down to the harbor supplying water to the houses of the early Greek settlers.  The Greeks certainly knew how to deviate water courses. The thermal scans also exposed the ancient shoreline, placing Greek Selinunte between two ports located immediately east and west of the city’s Acropolis. 

Selinunte was a true megalopolis in western Sicily that flourished from the 7^th century BC until the end of the 3^rd century BC. It was known for the richness of its farmlands and majestic temples, which we can only remotely imagine. Water management most certainly contributed to its wealth.

Location of Gordion confirmed

Excavations in Central Anatolia near Ankara at the presumed site of Gordion started in 1950. However, there was no actual confirmation that this assumption was correct – till now, that is. 

In a previous blog (see” Gordion, a name with resonance), I mentioned how Strabo described Gordion as being close to a river. Over the centuries, however, the nearby rivers have shifted, and today’s level is about eleven meters higher. Despite these alterations, today’s excavation site is located southeast of the confluence of the Sakarya and Prosuk Rivers, proving Strabo was right after all. 

When I visited this spot in 2007, I was told that the site might be Gordion – if not, evidently another important Phrygian settlement. There was a big outer city here, something in the style of Troy. The entrance gate had timber walls inside, which should help date it. The ramparts were built of two parallel stone walls, and the space in-between was filled with wood. 

The Cimmerians destroyed Gordion in 696 BC, and the ensuing fires preserved these walls to be covered later with alluvial mud up to four meters deep. Then the Lydians arrived and rebuilt the city, but it was again destroyed by the invading army of Cyrus the Great in 547-546 BC. 

As a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, the Persians installed a garrison at Gordion, which was eventually overthrown by Parmenion when he spent the winter of 333/334 BC here. We’ll remember that Alexander marched through Lycia in the south to regroup with Parmenion the following spring. In 278 BC, however, the city was destroyed by the Gauls and totally abandoned by 200 AD. 

Today Gordion is in the news because archaeologists have unearthed a stone with an inscription in the Phrygian language. It has been dated to the reign of Antiochus I, who reigned from 281 to 261 BC. For the first time, the name Gordion is mentioned. The stone was found in what is called the ancient city. 

The text is the longest inscription ever found in Gordion and written in Phrygian. It probably was part of a tumulus burial site. Currently, archaeologists and philologists are studying the inscription to present an understandable text to the public. [For a picture of the inscription, please click on this Arkeonews link]

The earliest Phrygian writing goes back to the 8th century BC, and they based their alphabet on the Phoenician. Later on, they used a version of the Greek alphabet. So far, eleven inscriptions on stone have been discovered and 245 graffiti, mostly on vases. Remarkably, despite this small number, Gordion is the richest source of early Phrygian writing.

Gods in Color – How it’s done

I first talked about Ancient Greece in full Technicolor in 2013 on this blog.  Later on, the subject made headlines as more and more traces of paint were (re)discovered on statues and monuments alike (see: Greek statues in blasting colors). 

To complement these findings and recreations, I found this very revealing YouTube presentation posted in 2016 to be enjoyed.