The origin of rice in ancient Macedonia

Driving east along the coast of the Province of Macedonia in Greece, I often came across rice paddies covering a vast portion of the lowlands. I wondered whether rice was known in antiquity and more specifically known to Alexander. 

For a long time, my question remained unanswered until I found an article in The Greek Reporter about the influence of Alexander’s campaign on today’s food. Among other sorts of foods, rice was the first to be mentioned. 

Rice was imported from Persia, which at that time was not limited to the borders of Iran we see today. The Persian Empire, which Alexander set about to conquer, spread from the west coast of modern Turkey to India in the east. It is not surprising to find so much rice in the meals served in all those countries like Syria, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India. What’s more, they often share the same recipe, although famous under a different name varying from plov to Palov, pilaw, pilaf, pulao, and others. Such a meal became immensely popular, also in many countries beyond those conquered by Alexander. Whether this extra spread happened in the wake of his conquests or not may be subject to discussion. 

During my own tour of Iran, I remember how, to be on the safe side, I had rice for lunch and again for dinner, alternatively accompanied by a stew of chicken or veal. Each time, the taste was the element of surprise as the spices made a subtle difference. It is remarkable that already in antiquity, the main dishes of Persian Royal banquets were known for the flavors and spices used in their rice meals, also served with meat stews! This means that I had my daily portion of old traditional Persian cuisine often sprinkled with saffron! 

In our 21st century, we are so used to having potatoes, rice, or pasta in our daily meals that it is hard to imagine how some peoples managed without these basics in antiquity. Meat and fish were the basic food, and whenever possible and available, it was accompanied by masterly prepared sauces made of fish and fish roe. 

Truly food for thought ... or thought for food?

The Tumulus at Amphipolis, monument for Hephaistion?

A lot has been written about the Kasta Hill Tumulus at Amphipolis and many of the theories and absurdities have made it to my blog. 

It all started in 2012, see: Has the tomb of Roxane and young Alexander been located? After much nonsense about Alexander being buried at Amphipolis (see: Nonsense about Alexander’s grave in Amphipolis) in 2014, the hype exploded in 2014 when everyone expressed its own opinions with more or less conviction (see: Amphipolis/Kasta Hill … here we go again!). 

The first serious study about Hephaistion’s presence occurred in 2019 (see: The site of Kasta Hill and the Tomb of Amphipolis). It was not until today that I got hold of this excellent report by Professor Emeritus Dimitrios Dendrinos shared by Academia.edu. 

 

On the Tumulus at Amphipolis

A paper by:

DIMITRIOS S. DENDRINOS, Professor Emeritus

Ph.D., MArchUD, Dipl. Arch Eng.

10/27/15; 1st update 11/1/15; 2nd update 12/24/15; 3rd update 1/10/16

 

Summary.

This paper is a sequel to four prior papers by the author on the subject of the Great Tumulus at Amphipolis. It incorporates some new evidence, as presented by the archeological team responsible for the excavation at Kasta Hill (near the old City of Amphipolis, in Macedonia, Greece) on September 30, 2015 [1]. Some General as well as certain Specific (but nonetheless all major) points, are outlined in this paper. They all confirm the author’s prior views on some key issues involved in both the architecture and historiography of Kasta Tumulus. However, this paper also serves to amend certain points made in the prior works by this author. It also adds considerably to the evidence linking a local version of the Bull Cult, covering a broader Region including Samothrace, to the monument at Kasta.

General points: (i) it is now almost certain that the major construction phase of the Tumulus at

Kasta commenced immediately following Hephaestion’s death in November 324 BC. It is almost certain that it was at that point in time intended as a burial place and monument for Hephaestion. Very likely, it was designed in the form of a Serapium Temple and in the overall religious tradition of a Bull Cult. In Appendix A it is suggested that a prior structure was there, as a Temple to Artemis Tavropolos. (ii) Deinokratis was very likely the Architect of the Hephaestion monument and tomb. Most likely his presence and tenure at Kasta lasted only about a couple of years. (iii) These conclusions are consistent to an extent with the archeological team’s views, expressed on August 10, 2014 and thereafter. They are also partly consistent with Professor Mavrojannis “Hephaestion Hypothesis” first presented on September 10, 2014. In Appendix B correspondence with Professor Mavrojannis is shown, which fully justifies this author’s characterization of the Hephaestion Hypothesis. In combination, these three (the two Peristeri plus the Mavrojannis) hypotheses fully confirm the propositions last presented by the author in his paper “On Certain Key Architectural Elements of Kasta Tumulus” Update #4 (as well as its Final Version). Additional evidence presented here further strengthens the conclusions of that paper.

Specific points: (i) Contrary to the claims by the archeological team, the perimeter of Kasta Tumulus is a circle, not an ellipse; (ii) The Lion of Amphipolis was never installed and was not intended for the top of the Hill; (iii) The perimeter wall is in no way possible “three meters tall”; (iv) The proposition that “the monument was accessible with a staircase” is inconsistent with a an exposed perimeter wall. These four items are elaborated in Part 1 of this paper. (v) The finding by this author that the tomb’s modulus (1.36m) in its ratio to the length of the circumferential wall (497m), a wall which was meant to be a calendar, produces an astonishing astronomical approximation to the exact numbers of day in a year (365.44) now has a possible candidate as being behind it: the mathematician-astronomer and Aristotle co-worker, Callippus;

This aspect of Kasta is elaborated in Part 2. (vi) Amphipolis and Kasta are linked to the Sanctuary in Samothrace by a Bull Cult depicted both in the Sanctuary’s site plan at its early phase of construction, and the inside of Arcinoe’s Temple there; this issue is addressed in Part 3. (vii) The archeological team’s new evidence, presented on 9/30/2015 as it relates to Hephaestion is extensively discussed and critically analyzed in Part 4. (viii) There is a possibility the Hephaestion tomb and monument was built in a space used prior to that as a Temple to Artemis Tavropolos; this issue (along with geologist Kabouroglou evaluation of the tomb’s dimensions) is discussed in Appendix A. 

Some analysis of Kasta’s internal dimensions is presented in Note 1, where references also to certain basic ratios found to govern key elements of the Parthenon, and the Temple of Epicurius Apollo at Bessae are made. The topic of dimensions in Monumental Architecture is elaborated throughout the paper, and some analysis of Halicarnassus Mausoleum is supplied along these lines. Note 2, plus Appendix C do address these issues also.

A number of key conclusions (as presented by the author in a string of four papers, published from October 2014 till July 2015, and their corresponding revisions) stand, although a few minor ones are amended here. One of them concerns the Kasta tomb orientation at the time it was constructed: new evidence confirms that it was built quite close to a North-South axis. 

Far too much has be speculated about the occupant of the Tomb at Kasta Hill, but as developed above, it is very plausible that Alexander planned Hephaistion’s Tomb in Amphipolis. It will take years to have a final answer which for now, is very satisfactory.

Herakleia-by-Latmos

Herakleia-by-Latmos is one of those odd places to visit. The remains of the ancient city are squeezed between the Latmos Mountains and the edge of Lake Bafa. However, you have to find them! 

Today’s village of Kapıkırı holds few promises of interesting ruins as its houses are built on top of the ancient remains. It takes a careful eye to spot abandoned walls, towers, column drums rooted into a tree, and other heart-shaped drums among the modern constructions. 

To start with, the place is off the beaten path and hard to find. That was not always the case because, in antiquity, Herakleia had full access to the sea deep inside a vast gulf. Over the centuries, this gulf has mainly been silted up with the alluvia carried along by the Meander River. By the end of the 3rd century AD, access from the sea was cut off, and all that remained was Lake Bafa. 

When Alexander the Great besieged Miletus, he and his army arriving from Priene had to march along the shores of this vast Latmian Gulf. Now, looking south from Priene towards Miletus, we’ll notice a flat plain that was once at the bottom of the sea. 

It is generally admitted that Herakleia was founded by Pleistarchus, son of Antipater (see: Antipater and Alexander), in the early 3rd century BC. He ruled over large parts of Caria and made Herakleia his capital, initially named after him, Pleistarcheia. 

Pleistarcheia/Herakleia prospered in Hellenistic times as goods arriving by sea from the west were forwarded further by road into the Carian hinterland. An extensive network of roads, probably conceived by Pleistarchus exiting the city, has been discovered. It is not easy to piece the remaining sections together because, over the centuries, its stones have been reused elsewhere. As the pavement shows no ruts from carts and is occasionally interrupted by stairs, these roads were only used by pedestrians, horses, and beasts of burden. They connected, however, with essential thoroughfares in the valley of the Meander. 

Archaeologists eventually bring the scattered remains to life by recognizing the constructions from antiquity. The open space of the Agora is easiest to spot by the modern visitor as it functions as a parking lot. The marketplace measured an impressive 60x110m and was surrounded by marble colonnades in the Doric style. This was the center for commerce and trade of cattle, agricultural products, and honey in particular. 

Overlooking the Agora are the walls of a temple built in the Doric order with two, now missing, columns at the entrance. It was most probably dedicated to Athena. Inscriptions on the outside walls of the temple reveal that it served as an archive to the city. They also give us essential information about the history of Herakleia and Asia Minor in the early 2nd century BC. In those days, the ambition of the Seleucid king Antioch III was to rule over all of Asia Minor. However, the Romans defeated him at the Battle of Magnesia ad Sipylum in 190 BC. The blocks with these inscriptions are scattered on the temple's north side. From the south side, another inscription was recovered that is being kept at the Louvre. This is a letter by Lucius Cornelius Scipio, Consul of Rome, and Publius Scipio, his brother, addressed to the Boulé and the people of Herakleia. 

Also dating from the 2nd century BC are the Bouleuterion, the theater, and the Gymnasium. There are, of course, many other remains from temples and houses that need further investigation. From later dates are the Roman Baths, a Nymphaeum, as well as remains of the city walls. The ramparts are among the best-preserved of their time, extending for more than 6 km and counting over 40 towers. In places, they stand to a height of 6 meters. 

Herakleia’s necropolis is located in the far south of the city, as always outside the walls. A large, not yet excavated tumulus is believed to belong to Pleistarchus. Hundreds, maybe even thousands, of rock-cut graves do not immediately catch the eye as they appear as mere rectangular openings in the rock wall. 

The conclusion is that there is far more to explore and discover than one would expect at first sight! As mentioned in my bibliography, I’ll gladly refer to the beautiful book, although written in German Herakleia in Latmos by A. Peschlow-Bindokat.

Antipater and Alexander

Antipater first emerges from history at the side of Philip, when he became King of Macedonia after his brother Perdiccas died fighting the Illyrians. 

From what could be established, Antipater was a Macedonian nobleman, born circa 399 BC. In his younger years, he must have accompanied King Philip (see: Macedonia Forged by Philip) during his campaigns to impose and improve the power of Macedonia. We actively see him from 346 BC onwards, aged 57. 

When Philip ended the successive Sacred Wars in 346 BC (see: Philip’s campaigns east and the Fourth Sacred War – Macedonia forged by Philip II - 11), a delegation from Athens arrived in Pella to negotiate the peace terms. After the usual diplomacy, they reached an agreement. Philip, however, didn’t trust the Athenians and sent Antipater, Parmenion, and Eurylochus to Athens to repeat his terms of peace. This is where Antipater is mentioned by Arrian for the very first time. 

During the Battle of Chaironea in 338 BC, when Alexander commanded the left flank with his cavalry, facing the Sacred Band, he was probably assisted by both generals Parmenion and Antipater. To seal the ensuing Common Peace, i.e., the League of Corinth (see: High stakes at Corinth), with the Athenians, Philip sent an official embassy led by nobody less than Alexander in the company of Antipater and Alcimachus. They carried the ashes of those Athenians who had fallen during the battle. 

The above clearly shows how much Philip trusted Antipater. It is known that the king formed a clique with Parmenion, Antipater, and Attalus, who were also bound by several intermarriages. 

Antipater’s private life is little known except that he produced an impressive number of children. His recorded sons were Iollas, Cassander, Pleistarchus, Philip, Nicanor, Alexarchus, and Triparadeisus. His daughters Phila, Eurydice, and Nicaea all married generals in Alexander’s army. 

After Philip’s assassination in 336 BC, Antipater and Parmenion, still devoted to their king, supported Alexander to be elected as his heir. However, the neighboring Thracians and the Greek states in the south had doubts about accepting the rule of this young king and revolted. Alexander had no choice but to confirm his kingship from the onset and attacked the troublemakers both north and south. 

As soon as he had established Macedonian control, he turned his attention to his Asian campaign and left Pella in 334 BC. He made sure to leave half of his troops in the capable hands of his regent Antipater, who became Hegemon. Besides this heavy responsibility, which included handling the finances of the military and the navy, he was headmaster of the School of Pages. 

On top of his own army, Antipater had the power to summon the militia of the Greek city-states. He must have managed the situation with excellence because he gathered a large number of infantry and cavalry, despite Alexander’s constant demand for reinforcements. Antipater’s troops were needed when he had to face Sparta’s revolt in the Peloponnese. 

The first group of reinforcements was already mentioned in 332 BC while Alexander was in Memphis, and some 500 mercenaries and 500 Thracian cavalry joined his lines. From Arrian, we know Alexander sent the funds needed to enlist or hire such recruits. When the king was in Susa, he sent a certain Menes back to become the new governor of Syria, Phoenician, and Cilicia. Menes received 3,000 talents in silver with instructions to transfer as much money as Antipater needed to cover his war expenses against Sparta. The general made good use of it because he emerged victorious in the decisive battle at Megalopolis, just north of Sparta. 

Antipater was, unfortunately, seriously criticized by Olympias, who liked to interfere in all matters. After several years, it must have become challenging for Alexander to make sense of either version of the facts. A mother’s love is mighty, and the image of the once-trusted commander was eventually blemished. Even if Alexander wanted to dismiss Antipater, he had nobody to replace him – not until a year before his death. Alexander decided to send Craterus to replace Antipater as the new regent in Macedonia. The regent-to-be was sent back home at the head of those veterans no longer fit for service. 

Alexander called (or summoned) Antipater to come to Babylon, but the old general ignored the order and sent his son Cassander instead. That is a bizarre decision because Cassander was not his favorite. Whether Cassander forced his father to accept to let him go or if it was by mutual agreement in case of the poison complot is true, we’ll never know. We will remember that Antipater’s son, Iollas was Alexander’s cupbearer then. 

Alexander left no heir or successor when he died in 323 BC. As a result, each of his generals claimed a part of this empire. As a matter of fact, Antipater took control of Macedonia. This, however, did not mean peace as Antipater got involved in the Lamian War. The Aetolians, a tribe south of Thessaly, decided to help the Athenian general Leosthenes defeat Antipater. Leosthenes managed to corner Antipater, but luckily Craterus came to the old general aid, and the Siege of Lamia was thus broken. The war proper ended a year later, in 322 BC, during the Battle of Crannon, when Leosthenes was killed. 

Antipater died in 319 BC at the blessed age of eighty. Upon his deathbed, he left his realm to Polyperchon and not Cassander. The arrogant Cassander deeply resented this, and Macedonia was the scene of bitter fights between Polyperchon and Cassander for the next decade. But that is another story altogether. 

It is quite astonishing to note how much Antipater accomplished in his later years. From the time of the Sacred Wars that ended in 346 BC until he died in 319 BC, he lived through some twenty-five turbulent years. In our modern world, this is the time for retirement. Amazing!

The sanctuary of Astarte in Motya

The island of Motya (modern Mozia) off the west coast of Sicily holds several remarkable places of interest: the Villa Withaker with its museum, the Phoenician or Punic cemetery, and the sanctuary of Khoton dedicated to the goddess Astarte.

Joseph Whitaker was an intellectual entrepreneur from Palermo who excavated the island in the first two decades of the 20th century. He organized his rich collection of ceramics, glass, coins, vases, jewelry, terracotta artefacts, and mosaics in separate rooms of his estate. This display shows how a private collector could present his precious finds to his friends and guests. At the same time, it is a unique view of archaeology on Motya that yielded so many Punic artifacts.

The museum's pride is the white marble statue of a charioteer that was found buried in a shallow grave on the road to the sanctuary (see: Amazing charioteers). Remarkably, this statue was made almost simultaneously as the bronze charioteer of Delphi, whose body was more static and elongated, probably to fit better inside his chariot.

 

When visiting the Tophet, the Punic cemetery at the northern end of the island, one can only be impressed by the many child graves. The remains were either put inside a terracotta urn or buried in a rectangular box whose lids are generally lost. A very moving confrontation! The nearby necropolis was used from the end of the 8th century until the end of the 6th century BC.

At the seaside, one recognizes the two gate towers from the 5th century BC. Here, we have to imagine the now inundated road that is connected to the mainland. By low tide, carts with larger wheels could cross the isthmus, giving the impression to walk on water. It has been dated to the 6th-5th century BC.

 

At the other end of the island, the artificial basin of Khoton has been exposed, actually a sacred area that goes back to the 8th century BC. It is here that a large temple facing the water was discovered. Inside this temple, there were initially two upright steles and an obelisk. Viewing the night sky at the winter equinox, the stones framed the constellation of Orion, which corresponds to the Phoenician god Baal. During the spring equinox, the temple's portal framed the same divinity, together with Venus, the Phoenician Astarte. Terracotta remains of a female statue were unearthed inside the temple. They belonged to the goddess Astarte, establishing that the temple was dedicated to her.

 

Also known as Anahita, Innana, or Ishtar, Astarte embodies the qualities of water, especially the fertilizing flow of water (see: The powerful goddess Anahita in Persia). The pool in front of her temple clearly refers to these qualities. She is also linked to the night sky, fertility, fecundity, and war. Besides Babylon, her main centers of worship in and around the Mediterranean were Sidon, Tyre, and Byblos, as well as Malta and Sardinia. As mentioned in my post about Anahita in Persia, we should remember that Alexander must have been well-aware of the role Anahita played in the realm of the Persian gods. Like so many other Greeks of his days, he may have assimilated her with Aphrodite.

During the latest excavation campaign, a beautiful head of the goddess Astarte was found. It was made of terracotta covered with a shiny layer of white on her face, red for her curly hair, and gold for her divine diadem. It could be dated to between 520 and 480 BC. The head was discovered inside a round votive pit and a relief rosette that shows traces of gilding. The rosette is one of the most widespread and popular symbols in the eastern Mediterranean and further inland, confirming the Phoenician goddess's presence. Also, the mold of a dolphin with a large naive eye was discovered.

The face of Astarte represents an astral goddess (based on the rosette) and a marine goddess (based on the dolphin). She is the Lady of life, goddess of fertility, love, and the sea and navigation, of fresh and seawater. The terracotta is Greek, although made in Sicily as was customarily done by the Phoenicians of Motya.

Recent archaeological investigations have shed new light on Motya as the oldest city in Sicily. This sacred area of the Kothon is set around a rectangular pool 52.5 m long. It was bordered by a circular temenos measuring 118 m in diameter, encircling three larger temples. The Kothon was dedicated to Baal, the main Phoenician god, lord of the sea, god of the storm and fertility, and to his companion, the goddess Astarte who had her own little temple there. Eventually, the mighty Astarte/Aphrodite of Motya survived as she merged with the goddesses of the peoples who already lived here.

 

Once again, it makes me wonder how much Alexander knew about these western territories and their beliefs. The fact is that we may never find the answer.

[Except for the first two pictures, the next ones come from The Archaeology News Network]

Analysis of the burial sites of Himera

In 2019, seven mass graves were discovered in Himera, exposing thousands of skeletons of soldiers who fought in the city’s fierce battles of 480 and 409 BC against the Carthaginians (see: The Battle of Himera, a major confrontation). Their bodies had been neatly arranged with great respect in an orderly fashion. Another thirty burial sites were reserved for the horses, which the experts related to the severe clash of 480 BC (see: Mass Graves discovered in Himera). 

Thanks to modern geochemical evidence, specialists were able to analyze the tooth enamel of 62 soldiers who fought in both battles. The tooth’s chemistry varies based on the region of origin of the men. In the battle of 480 BC, it turned out that only one-third of Himera’s soldiers were locals. In the confrontation of 409 BC, three-quarters of them were locals. This confirms Diodorus’ account that the Himerans received more outside help in their first battle than in the second. 

However, it appears that this account is incomplete because the present geochemical analysis reveals that the outside help was not Greek but came instead from mercenaries hired for the occasion from territories outside the Greek realm.  

This discovery sheds new light on history, as told by Diodorus and Herodotus. They apparently ignored the role of foreign mercenaries in Himera to portray a more appealing true Greek intervention. We should remember that Greeks generally considered it distasteful to hire foreign mercenaries, which may be a good reason for our historians to bend their story to accommodate their pride. Building the Temple of Victory on the very location of the battlefield truly confirms that sense of pride.

Another argument for taking this decision may be the attempt to align the victory at Himera with other Greek victories across the Mediterranean. It transpires that from 480 BC onward, foreign mercenaries influenced the ancient population in the western Mediterranean. Food for thoughts!

An ancient remedy and superfood, sea buckthorn

Ancient sources tell us that Alexander the Great had a thorough knowledge of medicine and ways to treat the wounds and ailments of his troops (see: Alexander caring for the wounded and the dead).

It is great to learn that one such remedy was the sea buckthorn, specifically the orange berries this shrub produces. It is commonly present in cold-temperate regions of Europe and Asia, from the coastal areas of the Netherlands and the Baltic Sea to Afghanistan, India, the Himalayan region, and northern China. In antiquity, it even grew in Greece. 

The pretty orange berries are full of vitamins and antioxidants, qualities that were unknown to Alexander, although he could take advantage of them. Besides, these fruits contained fatty acids, which helped hair and nails to grow and were beneficial for the eyes. It has been reported that after eating these berries, the king's horses had shinier hair, gained in strength, and recovered more quickly from injuries and illnesses. Alexander most probably added these berries to his own diet and to that of his troops, making them stronger and more vigorous. 

The Latin name for the sea buckthorn berries, Hippophae, may well be based on Alexander’s experiences with the horses as the particles hippos and phaos literally mean “shining horse.” This refers to the radiant effect of the berries on his horses’ fur. 

Alexander must have learned about these berries from Aristotle since Theophrastus, one of his pupils developed the healing properties of sea buckthorn in his writings. The interests of Theophrastus were, of course, not limited to these berries and extended to biology, physics, ethics, and even metaphysics (see: Theophrastus, philosopher and botanist). 

Today, as the sea buckthorn is made available as tea and juice or oil, we know that it even boosts the immune system and increases our concentration. A sound immune system, in particular, must have played an essential role in keeping Alexander’s troops in excellent shape.