The poem was not just a love poem

No, and it was not a love poem written by Sappho but by Shu-Sin, a Sumerian King who ruled around 2,000 BC. Well, it may not be exactly a love poem but it certainly was a way to celebrate beauty and love. 

A close study has revealed that according to Sumerian belief, it was the sacred duty of the country’s ruler to marry a priestess and votary (i.e. a devote adherent of a cult or religion) of Inanna, the goddess of love and procreation once a year. It was celebrated on New Year’s Day to ensure the fertility of the soil and fecundity in the womb. 

Marriage of Inanna and Dumuzi, TangLung, World History

The ceremony started with festivities and banquets accompanied by music, song, and dance. It was during such a celebration that the ‘bride’ of King Shun-Sin would recite the poem as part of the sacred rite. 

The King would symbolically marry the goddess Inanna, in order to ensure fertility and prosperity for the coming year. 

Bridegroom, dear to my heart,
Goodly is your beauty, honeysweet,
Lion, dear to my heart,
Goodly is your beauty, honeysweet. 

You have captivated me, let me stand tremblingly before you.

Bridegroom, I would be taken by you to the bedchamber,
You have captivated me, let me stand tremblingly before you.
Lion, I would be taken by you to the bedchamber. 

Bridegroom, let me caress you,

My precious caress is more savory than honey,

In the bedchamber, honey-filled,

Let me enjoy your goodly beauty,
Lion, let me caress you,
My precious caress is more savory than honey. 

Bridegroom, you have taken your pleasure of me,
Tell my mother, she will give you delicacies,
My father, he will give you gifts. 

Your spirit, I know where to cheer your spirit,
Bridegroom, sleep in our house until dawn,
Your heart, I know where to gladden your heart,
Lion, sleep in our house until dawn. 

You, because you love me,
Give me pray of your caresses,
My lord god, my lord protector,
My Shu-Sin, who gladdens Enlil's heart,
Give my pray of your caresses.
Your place goodly as honey, pray lay your hand on it,
Bring your hand over like a gishban-garment,
Cup your hand over it like a gishban-sikin-garment

The text appeared on a cuneiform tablet discovered during excavations in Nineveh in 1846-1847 as part of the Library of King Ashurbanipal. It was taken to the Museum of Istanbul where it remained hidden in a drawer until 1951. We have to thank Samuel Noah Kramer for retrieving and translating this lovely work of art. 

[for more details, please refer to this article in World History] 

Reading the papyrus scrolls from Herculaneum

The Villa dei Papiri as reconstructed in Malibu, California, got its name from the huge amount of papyrus scrolls found inside the house’s Library in Herculaneum. 

Unlike Pompeii, Herculaneum did not burn after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD but was buried under a meters-thick layer of pumice. That saved the Library of the Villa that once belonged to Julius Caesar’s father-in-law. The collection consists of more than 1800 papyrus scrolls and is considered the largest surviving library from Graeco-Roman antiquity. 

When the carbonized scrolls were discovered in the early 1800s, hopes were high to explore the long-lost literary works from antiquity. These scrolls were, however, very fragile and disintegrated as soon as they were touched. 

Attempts to open and unroll the rolls destroyed many of them, although some painstaking efforts by a monk revealed philosophical texts written in Greek. Three centuries later we are still trying to understand how to read the papyrus scrolls. 

In 2015, a process called micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) was developed to virtually unwrap fragile scrolls. It was used successfully to digitally recover a burned Hebrew scroll. 

Hopes ran high to apply the same technique for the papyri of Herculaneum. Unfortunately, they present another challenge as these texts are written in carbon ink, called “lamp black”. This type of ink is not detected by the micro-CT imaging system and the writing becomes ‘invisible’. More in-depth studies and new ‘learning machines’ eventually opened the path to reading four passages inside the unopened carbonized scrolls. 

In order to read entire scrolls, two key technical problems need to be solved. The first is to trace the papyrus surface inside the scan of the scroll, which is called segmentation. For the time being, this can only be done manually and costs a fortune. The other issue is the scanning, which is currently carried out using a particle accelerator in England. This involves a precious conservator-supervised transfer of the scrolls, two at a time, from Naples to England! 

The entire process requires much more fine-tuning and careful planning to finally set up a workable and above all affordable technique – as the entire organization is very expensive. With a little luck, it is expected that the scanning and reading of the 300 scrolls from Naples could be completed in two to three years. 

This will be a huge step forward to disclose the contents of hitherto unknown books and even new titles. So much history, literature, philosophy, and poetry that remained buried for two thousand years would finally be available! This is absolutely mind-blowing! 

Yet, there may be hundreds or even thousands of scrolls still buried in the Library of the Villa dei Papiri and, who knows, elsewhere among the ruins of Herculaneum! As we know, excavations are time-consuming and will depend on the funds made available to that effect. Only time will tell.

[Pictures from Vesuvius Challenge]

The short-lived appearance of King Langaros

Alexander’s campaign into the Balkans before marching east to conquer the Persian Empire is often neglected and even forgotten in literature. 

Only occasionally, do we find a name. This is the case for Langaros, King of the Agrianes, who had openly chosen to side with Alexander as he had done with Philip before him. 

When Alexander made his way to Pelium in 335 BC, he faced a threatening revolt of the Illyrians led by Cleitus, king of the Dardanians. Cleitus had persuaded the Autariatae and the Taulantians to join forces (see: Alexander's psychological warfare in Pelium, Illyria). The situation looked bleak for Alexander who needed to know more about the strength of these Autariatae. 

Langaros, faithful to Alexander, attended him with his bodyguard, the finest and best-equipped troops, and told his friend that he would take care of this warlike tribe. He actually did so and with Alexander’s consent, he invaded and occupied the Autariatae territory, causing severe losses to their common enemy. 

Alexander showered Langaros with every mark of honor and gifted him with many high-valued presents as proper at the Macedonian court. He also promised Langaros that if he visited him at Pella, he would give him his half-sister Cynane in marriage. Cynane was the daughter of Philip II and his Illyrian wife Audata (see: The many wives of Philip II of Macedonia). It was not be, as Langaros, after returning home, fell ill and died. 

Our only source for this story is Arrian, who kindly remembered him. 

Recent archaeological digs near the city of Kumanova in North Macedonia have revealed remains of an important yet unknown town from the 4^th century BC. Beside a pool with a plastered floor, some plastered walls, capitals and bases of columns, and appliqués have been found. They are consistent with similar details from Aegae and Pella. 

It is far too early to draw any conclusion right now and to link the ruins to King Langaros’ capital. The pictures of the site are not adding much to the story yet. As we know, excavations in that part of the world are slow to materialize. 

This King Langaros is not to be confounded with the Illyrian King Longarus, who ruled over the Dardanians from 231 to 206 BC. 

Longarus, however, played an important role in the life of Philip V of Macedonia, who regularly attacked the Dardanians. Taking advantage of Philip’s campaign in the Peloponnesus in 219 BC, Longarus occupied Bylazora, the capital of Paeonia. His success was short-lived though as two years later, in 217 BC Philip V captured Bylazora, blocking the Dardanian access road to Macedonia.

Bylazora, the last Macedonian Palace

The Paeonians occupied the land north of ancient Macedonia and functioned as a buffer zone with the Dardanians on their northern border. Bylazora, in fact, was situated in a commanding position at the natural pass leading from Dardania into Macedonia. 

Philip V of Macedonia, who ruled from 221 until 179 BC, captured Bylazora in 217 BC. By blocking the Dardanian access road to Macedonia, he freed his country from their repeated menacing raids. Philip’s son, Perseus who succeeded his father, sent mercenaries to Bylazora to confront the Romans but he was defeated in 168 BC. He was taken to Rome to be shown in their victory parade together with the incredible wealth of Macedonia. The rich kingdom became a mere Roman province. 

Although Bylazora was the largest city of Paeonia and was mentioned by Livy and Polybius, its location remained a mystery. It was tentatively identified with (Titov) Veles but the results were inconclusive. As so often, the city was discovered by accident in 1994. Road works exposed a buried pool-like building close to modern Sveti Nikole in the Republic of Macedonia some 50 kilometers southeast of Skopje between the Axios and the Strymon Rivers. 

Excavations started in 2008 after the Museum of Sveti Nikole invited the Texas Foundation for Archaeological & Historical Research (TFAHR) to a joint cooperation. 

It was a slow process of searching for clues that started at the top of the hill, the Acropolis. Soon a section of the northern defensive wall was exposed followed by the discovery of a ramp leading up to the Propylon. Next, a Stoa with Doric columns was identified and dated to the days of Philip V based on a similar gallery built by Attalus II in Athens. 

A long wall and successive rooms were unearthed and soon the archaeologists realized they had found the Palace of Philip V and Perseus, the last two kings of Macedonia. 

The first room they explored had all the characteristics of a kitchen, with a fireplace, much pottery, plates, vessels, and amphorae from the 3^rd-2^nd century BC. The walls were covered with a thick layer of plaster with traces of paint. Followed a room with columns and capitals which was named Ante-room since it connected to a more important Tholos. For those who visited the Palace of Aegae in Greece, that space is very recognizable. On the other side of this Tholos lies the Entrance Hall, which in turn is connected to the Vestibule. This large room opened onto the Outer Courtyard via a monumental staircase. 

Keeping the layout of the Palace of Aegae in mind, the archaeologists projected the same series of rooms around the Inner Courtyard. The picture seems to fit perfectly. It also matches the Palace of Dimitrias, situated just south of Volos in Greece. The city was built by Demetrios Poliorcetes when he was king of Macedonia, i.e., 294-288 BC. 

Until now and as opposed to Aegae and Pella, I had no knowledge of the Macedonian Palaces of Bylazora or Dimitrias. The destruction of the Palaces of Aegae and Pella by the Romans is well-documented. Dimitrias, however, was entirely dismantled and it is assumed that the same happened in Bylazora although it was never finished. 

Much more pertinent information with clear maps and unique details can be found in this lecture given by Dr. William J. Neidinger of the TFAHR.

[Pictures from TFAHR]