How the principles of Pythagoras and Buddha met

As a result of his campaigns, Alexander created a true revolution in world culture. His influence often reached far beyond what we might imagine or hope for today. 

Take, for instance, vegetarianism, which has become popular in recent years and has been presented as a new aspect of our eating habits. It may be shocking to learn this very concept goes back to the days of Buddha and Pythagoras. 

The Greek philosopher lived in the late 6th century BC and is best known for his theorem and teaching that our soul is immortal. Buddha was an ascetic and religious teacher from the 6th-5th century BC. Both men could have met were it not that Pythagoras spent most of his life in Magna Graecia and Buddha in Nepal and India – two opposite poles of the then known world! 

Surprisingly, they both promoted a vegetarian diet, although for different reasons.

Pythagoras was a purist stating that we should avoid eating fish, fowl, and meat to live a healthy life. However, Buddha’s reason for abstaining from eating fish or meat is based on his concept of rebirth, i.e., reincarnation. 

We owe it to Alexander’s conquests that, eventually, both concepts met. The followers of Pythagoras added a more spiritual doctrine to their vegetarian meals. On the other hand, the adepts of Buddha would reinforce their diet ideas with the scientific foundation of Pythagoras. 

Over the centuries, these two concepts led many people to concentrate their diet on fruits and vegetables, which, in turn, spread the broader exchange of varieties from east and west.

Unanswered questions about the Alexander mosaic

The Alexander mosaic is one of the most commonly used illustrations for Alexander the Great in articles, magazines, or books. 

Standing in front of this large work of art in Naples, Italy, made me realize that only a few pictures do the mosaic credit. Besides, it is pretty remarkable that Alexander has been almost isolated from the rest of the scene. In fact, Darius occupies the central position with his chariot and horses. With the crowd of Persian soldiers, it would have been more logical to call it the Darius mosaic. 

Anyway, much is happening in this battle scene, and attention is given to a significant number of details. I remember spending more than half an hour in front of this masterpiece, pacing back and forth, stepping back for a wider view, and zooming back into the minute details of the tiny tesserae. Their orientation and flow influence the perception of the figures to the point that I can almost “feel” the texture of the horse’s robe. 

I already described the impact the mosaic had on me in my earlier blog, The Alexander mosaic. Nevertheless, there are far more details than I could highlight in one go. I found a recent article by Nicola Murredu analyzing the scene from a different angle. 

The first detail I hadn’t noticed is that of the Persian soldier on the far right who is not carrying a spear like all his comrades but a standard. The picture in the standard is too damaged to be deciphered. However, I never saw standards in the Persian army’s outfit on the battlefield, although they must have existed. 

Halfway between this standard-bearer and Darius, one of the horses has not yet turned around with Darius’ chariot but continues riding to the left. I remember how I was puzzled by the cross attached to the horse’s harness. It reminded me of the Christian rosary, but the cross doesn’t fit time-wise. Murredu presents an explanation that ties the cross to the god Marduk, the ancient Mesopotamian creator of life and generator of life. Marduk was no longer part of the Persian religion now devoted to Ahura Mazda. However, this image could indicate that some soldiers still adhered to the Babylonian cult as it existed before Cyrus the Great. 

The last detail that raised questions in my mind is about the Greek meander motif that borders Darius’ cloak. Why is a Greek motive appearing on a Persian garment (left of the wheel)? Murredu mentions the Greek swastika motive (another way to describe the design) on a Persian bridle. He rightfully ties the swastika to India, where it originated. Persia might have taken over the swastika from them. However, the Greeks already used it frequently during the Early Archaic period. The swastika may have entered Persia from India or from Greece – who knows? 

Nicola Murredu is tackling other issues like, for instance, the Gorgon on Alexander’s outfit. It may be too far sought, but those who would be interested could read the article for themselves on The Gorgon and the Cross: Rereading the Alexander Mosaic and the House of the Faun at Pompeii.

How important was Barsine?

The question is actually double: How important was Barsine for Alexander? And how important was Barsine in the geopolitical world of her time? 

Authors from antiquity have not spent much ink on her, and she is only mentioned when she comes to the foreground, which isn’t often.  

Barsine was the daughter of Artabazus II, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia in northwestern Turkey. Artabazus’ first wife was from Rhodes and was the sister of two capable generals, Mentor and Memnon. 

Artabazus revolted against the newly appointed Persian king, Artaxerxes III Ochus. Artaxerxes had ordered the dismantling of his mercenary army, which the satrap did not accept. Artabazus and his family (including Memnon) went into exile and found refuge at the court of Philip II in Pella. Barsine, who was fluent in Greek, must have met the younger Alexander during their stay. We don’t know the nature of their encounters or conversations, but we may safely assume that Alexander inquired about life and customs in Persia. After all, he impressed the Persian envoys at a young age as he questioned them pending his father’s return to the Palace. 

Three years later, Artabazus reconciled with the Persian king, and he returned to Persia, taking Barsine and his family with him. That happened in 343 BC, about one year after Aristotle arrived on the scene to teach Prince Alexander. Over the years, the entire company probably met the philosopher along with other distinguished visitors to the Macedonian court. 

Barsine married her uncle Mentor, a Greek mercenary general in Persian service, while she still was young. Mentor died soon afterward, leaving her with a daughter. In those circumstances, Memnon took her as his wife that same year, 338 BC. He already had several sons from a previous marriage. We can safely assume that Barsine’s opinion in these matters didn’t count. What’s more, she became a second mother to her husband's (teenage?) sons. Just as Mentor, Memnon led an army of mercenaries for the Great King. Having a lovely wife familiar with the Greek language and culture, no doubt, added to his prestige. 

In 334 BC, when Alexander, now king of Macedonia, faced the Persian army at the Granicus River, Memnon fought on the enemy’s side. Although the battle was lost, the general’s capabilities were recognized by Darius, and he was appointed as commander of the Persian fleet in the Aegean. This honor may be a questionable trust because, in exchange, Barsine had to stay at King Darius’ court with her father, Artabazus. 

A year later, during the siege of Lesbos Memnon fell ill and died. Barsine was widowed for a second time. 

Around that time, Alexander had reached Issus where he defeated Darius in November 333 BC. When Parmenion rode to Damascus to take hold of the Persian treasury, the baggage train, and the women of the aristocrats, he met Barsine and brought her to Alexander. 

Her relationship with Alexander lasted five or six years. I wonder whether she traveled with Darius’ mother, wife, and children, who had been taken in Issus. Alexander was constantly on the move, conquering the eastern Mediterranean and Egypt and marching to Babylon and Susa, where he finally installed the Persian Royal Family. Barsine stayed at Alexander’s side, and we can only guess which quarters she occupied when the army was on the road. 

During that time, Artabazus remained faithful to Darius until the Great King was murdered by Bessus, who then proclaimed himself the new king of Persia. Artabazus refused to submit to Bessus and left, taking his mercenaries with him. He joined Alexander, who rewarded him with the satrapy of Bactria. Here he was reunited with Barsine. 

She is mentioned again by ancient historians about 327 BC at the end of Alexander’s campaign in Sogdia. However, it is unclear in which order the events unfolded precisely. 

The fact is that Barsine became pregnant and gave birth to Heracles. Alexander never recognized his son, his first-born, although he must have loved him, giving him the name of his ancestors. Is it possible that Alexander resented Barsine for having Heracles without his consent? She and little Heracles stood in his way for his bigger plans, meaning to marry Princess Stateira as – probably – agreed with Sisygambis. Barsine must have known of those plans, so she had no excuse. 

It is, in any case, a strange coincidence that Alexander almost immediately married Roxane, the daughter of a local chieftain. This was not love at first sight, as most authors claim. It was a purely political move to end the three-year wars through Bactria and Sogdia. 

Artabazus requested to be relieved of his duties in Bactria because of his old age. Alexander accepted his resignation and Artabazus left for Pergamon taking Barsine and the little boy with him. Artabazus seems to have produced an elegant way to retire, and, at the same time, he created the best solution for Barsine since there was no longer a place for her at Alexander’s court. She had to say goodbye to the snow-topped mountains of the Hindu Kush after sharing so many miles with the Macedonian troops and her great love.

Barsine met Alexander again in 324 BC when she attended the mass wedding at Susa. Her daughter from Mentor married Nearchus. Two of her sisters were also given in marriage to Alexander’s companions, but the sources (Plutarch and Arrian) are at odds with each other about the names. 

Hardly a year later, Alexander died in Babylon. I wonder whether Barsine was still in nearby Susa, close enough to say her goodbyes to the man she once loved? If she returned to Pergamon after the wedding, she could never make it to Babylon in time. 

She and Heracles quietly spent the next decade in Pergamon. In 310 BC, Cassander as king of Macedonia, summoned Alexander IV, Alexander’s 14-year-old legitimate son with Roxane, to Pella to be poisoned. 

The news traveled fast and eventually reached Pergamon, as poor Heracles was now at the center stage in the drama of the Succession War. Initially, general Polyperchon had been defending the cause of the now 17-year-old Heracles, but in 309 BC, he fell into Cassander’s vicious trap. Cassander made many great promises of money and power in exchange for eliminating Heracles. For one hundred talents, Polyperchon tricked Heracles into accepting an invitation for dinner and poisoned him. Barsine, who had traveled with her son, was murdered shortly afterward, although some sources pretend she was murdered simultaneously. Sadly, Heracles didn’t even receive a proper burial in the cemetery of his ancestors, and neither did Barsine. 

Now about my questions formulated at the beginning of my post. How important was Barsine for Alexander? Well, she was important enough to keep her at his side for about six years. All this time, she managed not to get pregnant. Barsine knew that Alexander dearly wanted and needed an heir during those years of intimacy. She also knew that his plan was to marry a Persian princess. Barsine spoiled this by wanting a child of her own. Alexander had his principles and stuck to them. Nobody, not even sweet and gentle Barsine, was allowed to interfere. His sudden marriage to Roxane may be seen as a statement toward Barsine. Historians say Alexander fell in love with Roxane because of her beauty. In my mind, her beauty may be a nice bonus, but it was not the main reason. 

How important was Barsine in the geopolitical world of her time? Barsine was a beneficial source of information about the Persian court, Persian habits, and culture. After all, she had lived at least three years at the court of King Darius. Speaking Greek was an important asset to avoid misunderstandings. Alexander was an excellent judge of character, and having met Artabazus at Pella, he knew that he was a man of his word and could be trusted. Artabazus was loyal to Alexander. Having his daughter at the king’s side was a warranty that worked both ways. Barsine and her father contributed to Alexander’s larger plan. The birth of Heracles disturbed this goal – something Alexander never could or would accept. Barsine no longer fit his purpose in the new world he was building.

Fascinating Persepolis

For those who are in California or expect to travel there soon, it seems very worthwhile to visit the new exhibition at the Getty Villa Museum in Malibu. 

Persia: Ancient Iran and the Classical World will run from 6 April until 8 August 2022.

The video Persepolis Reimagined provides an excellent introduction to the exhibition and the rich historical role of Persepolis, the prestigious capital of the Persian Empire. 

This exhibition is centered on the shared art, religion, myth, and culture in the old world. We often forget that peoples in antiquity were very much connected. Persia, for instance, had a significant influence on Greek culture, especially after Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire. Also, through Roman times. These exchanges were not unilateral, as the Greek and Hellenistic dynasties profited from the Persians' knowledge, art, and culture. 

The Getty provides complete information in their article, Inside the Glorious Art – and Fierce Rivalry – of Ancient Persia, Greece, and Rome.

True or False?

While writing my blog about Persian dining (see: Dining the Persian way), I found a statement that Alexander used saffron to care for his hair. 

Alexander clearly took great care of his body health, and daily bathing has repeatedly been mentioned by our historians. However, I never came across any reference to the use of saffron for his hair. Too much vanity to match his character, maybe? 

The article mentioning saffron was published by the Greek Reporter and reads as follows: Moreover, Alexander himself carefully kept stocks of saffron — but not for culinary use, rather for cosmetic use: in fact, the young Macedonian king used the pistils of the flower Crocus sativus as a conditioner and as a care for his hair, characterized by its strikingly golden color and a splendid tone. 

The same article further mentions that the army carried a provision of saffron as the primary means to exchange goods among the Macedonians. 

True or false, these bits of information remain hard to check and believe, although not impossible. 

On the other hand, I gladly believe that Alexander’s army introduced saffron to the West. The precious spice spread further through the later Hellenistic Indo-Greek kingdom, the Yavana Kingdom. Over the last two centuries BC, that realm generally covered part of modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the northwest of India. 

Saffron became deeply rooted in Indian cooking, and growing the plant became so popular that the country ranks fourth among the largest producers worldwide. Interestingly, one of the most refined types of saffron comes from the Kashmir area. This type is recognizable by its dark color and delicate aroma.

Dining the Persian way

“What disturbs me most is not your lack of respect for my judgment, it’s your contempt for a world far older than ours!” Alexander pronounced these words in Oliver Stone’s movie, casually placed in the king’s upcoming wedding with Roxane. It is just a detail, but one that resonates much further than we may see at first glance. 

For the Greeks and the Macedonians, the Persians were Barbarians. They certainly could not imagine their refined culture, splendid cities and monuments, and accoutrements. As a great admirer of Cyrus, the very founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, Alexander clearly understood that Persia was much older than Greece and consequently had built up a richer civilization. 

Oliver Stone rightfully illustrated the grandeur and richness of the Persian Empire in Babylon when he orchestrated Alexander’s triumphal entrance march! This was the first major city the Macedonians saw with their own eyes, leaving them in total awe. The pomp and circumstance of Persepolis and Susa added to their astonishment and wonder. 

Although Alexander and his companions were familiar with the palaces of Aegae and Pella, these edifices could in no way compete with anything in Persia. Athens was a gem of its own right, with the shining Parthenon finished a good hundred years before. In contrast, Persian history, refinement, protocol, and wealth testified to their cultural superiority. It must have been a real shock to most of the army. Even Alexander and his close companions were not prepared to deal with this immeasurable and boundless wealth. 

Our thoughts automatically drift to the gold and the luxurious furnishing and ornamentation of the palaces. Still, we hardly would think of food, the oriental way to serve it and savor it. In the Greek Symposia, an all-male gathering, food was secondary to the meeting proper. The banquet started with a meal, and the wine continued to be served till the end of the occasion. More importantly, the host would regulate the wine intake since it was cut with the amount of water he determined for the entire duration. 

On the other hand, the Persians drank their wine straight, and sumptuous occasions called for much drinking. The long duration and the overall glamour contributed to creating extraordinarily refined and elegant events. The wide choice of savory, sweet foods like dates, for example, was a luxury unknown to many Greeks. 

Dining was an occasion to display Persian magnificence and sumptuousness, not only in their setting but also in the dishes themselves. The diners’ behavior, however, was far from elegant. Since the flow of the wine was not overseen by a host or similar master of ceremony, the Persians often became violent and not seldom harassed the king’s women who attended the meal. In this light, it is not surprising that the Greeks saw them as Barbarians! 

In both cultures, fish and meat were widely present on the menu. The main difference was that the Greeks generally roasted their meat and fish, whereas the Persians preferred simmered, slowly cooked meals. They enriched their marinades with exotic fruits and spices imported from as far as India, including saffron. Bread, rice, and eggplant, delicate sauces further enhanced the dishes. After the main dish, there was plenty of room for sweets and fruits as part of the following dishes offered. A marriage of foods occurred during the lifetime of Alexander and lasted for centuries entering today’s flavors and gastronomic influences in the world, particularly in the Mediterranean. 

It is said that in its heyday, the Persian Empire was the leader in refined gastronomy. Arrian casually mentioned the regiments of cooks attached to the Persian king’s services when Parmenion took Damascus. The Persian baggage train with noblemen's wives was camping there pending the outcome of the Battle of Issus (not expecting their defeat). 

Even today, it is hard to imagine the refined cooking and presentation of the meals marking special occasions such as the mass wedding in Susa. Cooks must have been busy day and night preparing an array of meats, fish, vegetables, and fruits for thousands of guests (9.000 according to our sources!). The logistics to cart the meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables to the palace grounds are achievements on their own. 

At that time, Alexander’s army was no longer all Macedonian but integrated with peoples from Persia, Central Asia, and India. The food habits in the camp had changed accordingly. In a way, Alexander conquered land and people with their specific cultures, including a wide variety of their diets. In his wake and thanks to the later Roman Empire, the Spiced Road was born with tentacles far beyond the lands touched by Alexander. 

Modern visitors to Greece, Turkey, and the Middle East experience these exotic tastes and other flavors when served a typical local meal. We accept them as a matter of course, but the issue was entirely different for those living 2,500 years ago. Most people never left their hometown unless to war with the neighboring settlement. Persia, which was much larger than today’s Iran, was at the other end of the world as far as they were concerned. To them, the world appeared from an entirely different perspective. 

The Greek-Italian chef Giorgio Pintzas Monzani wrote several pertinent articles on this subject in the Greek Reporter, which inspired me to write the present post.

[Top and second picture from Asia Food]