First contacts with China

It is generally not mentioned that in the wake of Alexander's expansion, an opening towards China, or Seres as Strabo called the country, was created to the east of Central Asia. After all, in 329 BC, the king founded the city of Alexandria Eschate (very appropriately being Alexandria the Furthest), the later Khojend in modern Tajikistan, where he stopped his march eastwards. 

His Greek settlers in Central Asia were there to stay for the next three hundred years as Seleucos established his Empire, which later became the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom. Over time, their kings steadily expanded their power further to the east, and the main force appeared to be King Euthydemus (230-200 BC). This Euthydemus was born in Magnesia, Asia Minor as the son of the Greek general Apollodotus. By 209 BC, as Graeco-Bactria king, he withstood the three-year-long siege of Bactra led by the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III. In the end, Antiochus offered one of his daughters in marriage to Demetrius, son of Euthydemus, in exchange for which he received several Indian war elephants. 

Once well settled, Euthydemus went to the lands beyond Alexandria Eschate. As reported by Strabo, he even reached Kashgar in the region of Xinjiang. This may date the first Western and China exchanges to around 200 BC. 

How China looked at the West is a much lesser-known story. Not unlike the Greeks, the Chinese held that they were the center of world civilization and that all other countries were tributaries of China. This implies that the campaign of Euthydemus may have been a significant turning point (see also: Alexander's influence reached all the way to China?)

Around 130 BC, embassies of the Han Dynasty traveled to Central Asia as the Chinese emperor Wudi was interested in the sophisticated civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria, and Parthia, respectively known to the Chinese as Dayuan, Daxia, and Anxi. Since then, numerous embassies left every year to these countries, where they found people living in fixed homes and interested in the rich produce of China. Chinese records reveal that more than ten such missions were dispatched into Parthia, Seleucid Syria (known as Lijian), Chaldea (Tiaozhi), and north-western India (Tianzhu). Allegedly, they even visited Emperor Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD), and it seems hard to imagine Chinese envoys walking in the streets of Rome! 

Roman soldiers also made their way east, although not out of their free will. It has been documented that soldiers captured by the Parthians were dispatched to defend their eastern borders. In 54 BC, Pliny mentioned that after the battle of Carrhae in 53 BC (see: Harran, better known under its Roman name Carrhae), the Parthians sent some 10,000 prisoners to Margiana to man the frontier. Chinese sources report that these soldiers had blond hair and blue eyes. Eventually, these troops were captured by the Chinese to founding the city of Liqian or Li-Chien – a transliteration of Alexandria - it seems, in the region of Gansu in western China. Several inscriptions discovered in the Kara-Kamar caves on the border between eastern Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were written in Bactrian, Greek, Arabic, and Latin. The latter was composed of three lines and was left by the Roman soldiers of the Pannonian Legio XV Apollinaris around the 2^nd century AD. Notably, this cave complex showed remarkable similarities with temples dedicated to the god Mithras, who was featured in killing the bull. This secret male cult started about the 1^st century AD and soon spread with the legionnaires over the entire Roman Empire. 

By the first century BC, Rome started showing serious interest in the precious silk it received through trade with the Parthians. Wearing silk soon exploded, but it was not met with overall approval. Seneca (3 BC-65 AD) complained that silk did not hide the body, not "even one's decency." This led the Senate to issue an edict prohibiting silk-wearing, which the wealthy Roman elite liked to ignore. Besides the moral ground, this edict also had an economic reason, as importing silk caused a massive outflow of gold. 

Yet, business is business, and the trade prospered. Over land, using the Silk Road was a tedious and expensive operation, which was soon to be supplanted by a newly found maritime route. The ships would sail from China, stopping at ports in modern Vietnam, India, and Sri Lanka controlled by the Chinese emperors. The western end of this business route, with stopovers in Egypt and the Nabataean territories, was controlled by Rome. Their merchants traveled on Roman, Indian, and even Chinese ships. 

Best known from this period is the campaign led by the Chinese general Ban Chao, who in 97 AD crossed the Pamir Mountains with an army of 70,000 men to fight the Xiongnu, generally the people living in Central Asia. He even reached the Caspian Sea and the lands occupied by the Parthians. From here, the general sent an envoy to Dagin (Rome). Ultimately, this was Gan Ying, who stopped in Mesopotamia although he intended to sail to Rome via the Black Sea. The Parthian merchants wishing to safeguard their profitable position as the middleman between Rome and China, told Gan Ying that his planned trip would take him two years. In reality, this was two months. This is why the envoy decided to abandon his mission and return home. His merit, to a certain extent at least, was his account of Rome and Emperor Nerva, which he obviously based on second-hand information. However, he correctly reported that Rome was the leading economic power at the western end of Eurasia. The Chinese army settled for an alliance with the Parthians. 

The earliest documented Roman embassy to arrive in China dates to 166 AD. Chinese sources mention that it came from Antun (Antoninus Pius), king of Dagin (Rome). This information must be clarified since Antoninus Pius died five years before, in 161 AD. It is suggested that they meant Marcus Aurelius, who added the name of his predecessor to his own; he came to power in 166 AD. 

This Roman delegation probably arrived by sea and carried presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shells originating from Southern Asia. More important, however, is that the Chinese acquired a treatise on astronomy. Roman cartographers knew of the existence of China since the country was mentioned on the map by Claudius Ptolemy in about 150 AD. The booming trade across the Indian Ocean in the 2^nd century AD enabled the identification of Roman outposts in India and Sri Lanka. 

After a lacuna about further exchanges, the next documented account emerged in the 3^rd century AD when the Roman Emperor (possibly Alexander Severus) sent presents of colored glass to Emperor Taitsu of the Kingdom of Wei (reigned 227-239 AD) in Northern China. The last record about an embassy from Rome dates from 284 AD when the envoys of presumably Emperor Carus (282-283 AD) brought "tribute" to the Chinese Empire. 

To summarize, contact between our western world and China lasted at least six hundred years after Alexander opened access to Central Asia. In all its aspects, the Silk Road sank into oblivion until Marco Polo revived this part of history in the 13^th century, i.e., one thousand years later!

Ithaca, a poem by C.P. Cavafy

The poet Cavafy most probably doesn’t ring a bell with most of us. I must confess I hadn’t heard of him until the death of Sean Connery on October 31, 2020. There is no apparent link between both names except that the actor has read Cavafy’s poem with the musical background of the Greek composer Vangelis, who also composed the music for the Alexander movie directed by Oliver Stone.

Cavafy was born in Alexandria, Egypt, to Greek parents. After his father died in 1870, he moved to Liverpool, where he developed his command of the English language. Eventually, he returned to Alexandria.

Nothing predicted his destiny to become one of the most distinguished Greek poets of the 20^th century. He remained obscure all his life, and he only circulated his verses among friends. The main reason probably was that he was gay and that many of his poems were sexually explicit.

Cavafy was fascinated by ancient Greek and Roman civilizations, which was reflected in his poems describing life in those days.

The poem entitled “Ithaca,” which I quote hereafter, is generally accepted as one of his great works. It is based on Homer’s Odyssey and talks about the importance of our journey in life to reach our final destination. In other poems, like “The Battle of Magnesia” and “To Antiochus of Epiphanes,” Cavafy develops his theory that the decadence of civilization leads to its destruction.

ITHACA

As you set out to Ithaca 

hope that your journey is a long one, 

full of adventure, full of discovery. 

Laistrygonians and Cyclops, 

angry Poseidon-don't be afraid of them: 

you'll never find things like that on your way 

as long as you keep your thoughts raised high, 

as long as a rare sensation 

touches your spirit and your body. 

Laistrygonians and Cyclops, 

wild Poseidon-you won't encounter them 

unless you bring them along inside your soul, 

unless your soul sets them up in front of you. 

Hope that your journey is a long one.

May there be many summer mornings when, 

with what pleasure, what joy, 

you come into harbors you're seeing for the first time; 

may you stop at Phoenician 

to buy fine things 

mother of pearl and coral, amber and ebony,

sensual perfume of every kind - 

as many sensual perfumes as you can;

and may you visit many Egyptian cities 

to learn and learn again from those who know. 

Keep Ithaka always in your mind. 

Arriving there is what you're destined for. 

But don't hurry the journey at all. 

Better if it lasts for years, 

so that you're old by the time you reach the island, 

wealthy with all you've gained on the way,

not expecting to make you rich. 

Ithaca gave you the marvelous journey. 

Without her you would have not set out. 

She has nothing left to give you now. 

And if you find her poor, Ithaca won't have fooled you. 

Wise as you will have become, so full of experience,

you'll have understood by then what these Ithacas mean.

Aigai in Asia Minor

The name Aigai immediately brings the city in Macedonia to mind, which is also spelled Aegae. It seems, however, that there is another Aigai in the province of Manisa in Western Turkey.

[Picture from Inspirock - photo by Selim Rutbil]

The city is located on the valley that runs from Magnesia (modern Manisa) to Elaia, the ancient port of Pergamon. Aigai has been mentioned by Herodotus but had no great power. Although Alexander marched through the area, his presence has not been recorded either. His successor Seleucos is, however, known to have been honored with divine attributes in Aigai. During the later reign of Eumenes I, Aigai fell under the rule of the Attalids of Pergamon. It seems that the city’s layout closely resembles that of Pergamon, which is not surprising based on their common historical background. In the second century BC, Aigai was entirely rebuilt, and in 133 BC, it became part of the Roman Empire.

In 17 AD, the region was hit by a severe earthquake, and Tacitus tells us how twelve cities were destroyed overnight. Among the affected towns, Sardes and Magnesia are mentioned but also Aigai. In any case, Emperor Tiberius contributed to their reconstruction. 

So far, the buildings exposed by the archaeologists all date back to that period, just after the mid-2^nd century AD. Excavations have revealed a 1.5 km long city wall. On the eastern side of Aigai, a three-story high indoor market has been uncovered. Its walls still stand up to 11 meters tall over a length of 82 meters. The upper floor of this overall Hellenistic building was renovated in Roman times. A Roman Macellum used by butchers and fishermen alike has also been excavated. The inside floor was made of stones placed on lime mortar to hold the water in which the fish could be stored safely. Also, two separate channels were unearthed, one that carried fresh water inside and one that transported the waste water outside.

[Picture from Inspirock - photo by Oran Onal]

Several other buildings have been identified as well, like the Agora and its west Stoa, a theater, a Bouleuterion, a Stadium, a Gymnasium, and three temples, one of which has been identified as belonging to Demeter. They all date back to the mid-2^nd century AD. Aigai was eventually abandoned in the 3^rd century AD.

About five kilometers outside the city proper, the remains of a sanctuary dedicated to Apollo were found. It stood on the banks of the river that ran around the ruins. It can easily be spotted because three monolithic columns and the six-meter-high cella walls are still standing. It has been dated to the 1^st century BC.

Excavation results from Magnesia-on-the-Meander

Magnesia-on-the Meander is one of the lesser known archaeological sites in western Turkey. The Germans were the first to resurrect the site from its ashes so to speak at the end of the 19^th century. During those years, they managed to expose Magnesia’s theater and agora, the Temple of Artemis and the Temple of Zeus, and several other buildings. Excavations were resumed only in 1984 and again this year.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network. Credit: AA]

This time, six statues were recovered from the ruins of the Temple of Artemis, four female and one male as the sixth one’s gender cannot be established. They were all found face-down in good condition. They will join ranks with fifty or so previously found statues that are now scattered over museums in Izmir and Aydin. The Archaeological Museum of Istanbul will get the best examples, as always joining the existing collection of statues from the Temple of Artemis. The museum’s collection already possesses magnificent friezes from said temple and boosts an excellent scale reconstruction. Also exhibited there is a marble letter written by Darius I to the satrap of Asia Minor between 492 and 485 BC.

It is expected that future excavations will reveal more statues from this particular area.

Let’s not forget that Magnesia was one of the two dozen mints that were allowed to strike coins for Alexander the Great during his lifetime!

Alexander’s presence in Ephesos

Picturing Alexander walking through the streets of Ephesos is relatively easy. When he arrived, most cities of Asia Minor were occupied by armed forces and notables loyal to the Great King. The population generally was known to have amicable relations with Macedonia. In Ephesos, they even erected a statue in honor of King Philip II, Alexander’s father.

Three days after leaving Sardes, Alexander arrived in Ephesos and was received with open arms. He immediately expelled the pro-Persian oligarchy and installed a democratic government. Now that the people felt liberated from their political masters, they didn’t waste time putting the collaborators to death. Some victims had sought refuge inside the temples and were now being dragged outside and stoned to death. Alexander reacted immediately, realizing that if he didn’t stop this rage immediately, the vengeance offensive would run out of control, and innocent citizens would be killed. He halted this revolt with a firm hand. The people of Ephesos listened, and Alexander’s popularity never stood higher than after his intervention.

The city probably became a member of the League of Corinth, which meant that it was subject to Macedonian rule and had to pay the tribute previously granted to Persia. In reality, this tribute went to the reconstruction of the famous Temple of Artemis, which was burnt down the night Alexander was born, set afire by a certain Herostratus who wanted his name to be remembered for eternity. A new temple was now under construction, and Alexander initially suggested it should be dedicated to him, but the Ephesians refused. The Artemis cult was old, going back to the worship of Cybele, and probably reached the first Greek settlers around 1000 BC. Artemis was the virgin goddess of nature who assisted women in delivering their babies. She was represented with many breasts (linked to the fertility cult) and a miniature temple on her head as a crown. The three stories of the crown indicated that she protected the cities, while the sickle on her forehead referred to the moon goddess. She also wore the symbol of the bee, i.e., the emblem of Ephesos, indicating that she originated from Anatolia.

The first Temple of Artemis goes back to the 7th century BC, and after its destruction, it was rebuilt on an unheard scale. The new temple rested on a plinth of 13 steps, and the sanctuary itself, measuring 115x55 meters, was surrounded by a double row of 18-meter-high Ionic columns, 127 in total. The 36 columns on the front side are said to have been decorated with reliefs by Skopas, while nobody less than Praxiteles built the altar. After its reconstruction, it became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Unfortunately, all that is left today are some flooded foundations and a single not-too-well-reassembled column. The scattered remains go back to the time of Lysimachos, one of the generals and successors of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC. In Alexander’s days, the city was centered on the Artemision. Lysimachos chose the location for the new town, which he surrounded with defensive walls. The place looks wild and overgrown, an eerie picture accentuated by the cackling chickens and screaming geese on the adjacent farm. At one time, even the gods made sure I heard them. The sky had turned pitch dark, and soon enough, the thunder rumbled while lightning flashes tore the clouds apart. A sign from Zeus, no doubt, but not from Artemis. Strangely enough, I was not surprised by the god’s manifestation.

After twenty years of rest, new excavations started again in 2014 because this year’s drought made the ruins far more accessible. Archaeologists hope to find remains from the Roman era, which may answer whether this famous temple was converted into a Christian church. In its present condition, it is not drawing much interest from tourists, but this may change when enough of the layout is exposed. After all, the sanctuary occupies the size of a football field, something worth considering, right?

Pausing at the edge of the poorly excavated parcel, I wonder about the traders, tourists, craftsmen, and kings who visited this temple over the centuries when it was a market and a religious center. They all came to honor Artemis and to share their profits with her. Excavations have shown that many people came to offer their gifts: gold and ivory statues of Artemis, but also earrings, bracelets, and necklaces from faraway countries like Persia and even India. An excellent collection of these gifts can be seen at the local Museum of Selçuk.

The temple may not have been finished when, in 268 AD, the Goths raided the city, destroying or partly destroying it. In 614, Ephesos was hit by an earthquake, severely damaging the buildings. The town lost its importance as a commercial center, aggravated by the silting up of the Cayster River that constituted its harbor.

While he was in Ephesos, Alexander received representatives from the towns of Magnesia and Tralles offering their submission. Parmenion was dispatched with a force of 5,000 foot soldiers and 200 Companion cavalry to ensure recognition by all Aeolian and Ionian towns in the area. At the same time, Alcimachus, son of Agathocles, set out with an equal force. They established a popular government replacing the existing Persian rule, ensuring that all would keep their own laws and customs and pay their taxes to Alexander instead of to the Persians.

Alexander, meanwhile, stayed in Ephesos and offered sacrifices to Artemis. It is probably at this time that he frequently visited the studio of Apelles, who became the only painter allowed to paint pictures of Alexander. We know of at least one painting made especially for the Temple of Artemis, in which Alexander was represented holding a thunderbolt. Apelles depicted the King using only four colors to create a more wondrous work. Alexander also organized a ceremonial parade of his troops in battle order, wearing their best outfit. He definitely knew how to put up a show!

Leaving the temple area, I drive up the nearby hill where it is said that the Virgin Mary spent her last days. From here, I have an eagle’s view of Roman Ephesos. In 190 BC, the city was included in the Kingdom of Pergamon, which, in turn, was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 133 BC, the later Byzantine Empire. In the early days of Christianity, Ephesos was still significant, if only because apostle Paul lived here, as well as apostle John, who is said to have taken care of Mary and who is buried here.

Of course, the Romans turned Ephesos into the largest seaport of the Aegean, which prospered till the harbor silted up, leaving the grand city about 6 miles inland from the coast. The most remarkable monument from those times is the Temple of Hadrian with the Baths behind it, the Fountain of Trajan, the Library of Celsus, and the magnificent villas (see: Ephesos and its terrace houses and The Grandeur of Ephesus).

[Click here to see all pictures of Ephesus]

Cute anecdote about doping in antiquity

Instead of pure archaeological information, I’m sharing this cute anecdote about the use of “performance-enhancing” drugs in antiquity.

We have to thank the latest excavations at Magnesia on the Meander located about 15 miles east of Miletus for this information. The diggings focusing on the stadium revealed a relief telling us that the most important part of the stadium limited to 60 persons was reserved for a group called the Mandragoreitoi. These were people who produced mandrake, a deliriant and hallucinating drug held in high esteem and apparently encouraged to be used by the competing athletes. Wikipedia defines mandrake as follows: Mandrake is the common name for members of the plant genus Mandragora, particularly the species Mandragora officinarum, belonging to the nightshades family (Solanaceae). Because mandrake contains deliriant hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids such as atropine, scopolamine, apoatropine, hyoscyamine and the roots sometimes contain bifurcations causing them to resemble human figures, their roots have long been used in magic rituals, today also in contemporary pagan traditions such as Wicca and Odinism.

While clearing the old stadium with a capacity of 40,000 people from tons and tons of soil, it was discovered that part of the seats were reserved for the citizens of Ephesos, while some political groups, bakers, gardeners, and bird sellers had combined tickets. Other reliefs found on the podiums tell us about the awards that were granted to competitors in any of the three categories, gymnastics, riding and music. Successful athletes were interestingly enough granted a bundle of clothes, probably a distinctive outfit.

More reliefs await future excavation and the archaeologists hope to find some 125 of them, meaning that more information about the stadium and the competitions will become available.

[Pictures from Hurriyet Daily News]