All you need to know about music in antiquity

The subject of music has been discussed previously in several blogs such as

Revealing ancient Greek music, the Seikilos Epitaph, and Reconstructing ancient Greek music, an impossible task?, and Another reconstruction of ancient Greek music, and The Seikilos Epitaph, continued.

 

ARTE TV has recently shown a documentary about music in antiquity, providing an excellent chronology and overview of how it was written and how it was deciphered.

 

Their “Echos de l’antiquité”, of which I insert the summary hereafter, can also be watched on their own site of ARTE, in different languages including English. It is available free of charge until 28 August 2021. After that date, it can be purchased as  a video or DVD.

A very informative summary is given by O2B Film, which I copied hereafter.

ECHOS DE L’ANTIQUITÉ

Réalisateur : Bernard Geore

Auteur : Bernard George

Producteur délégué : O2B Films

Diffuseurs : ARTE France • RTE

Année de diffusion : 2021 (en production)

Durée : 52 minutes

Récemment, un papyrus est découvert dans une réserve du musée du Louvre. Il s’agit d’un texte grec à peine lisible, surmonté de petits signes étranges.

L’enquête entreprise par l’archéo-musicologue Annie Bélis, révèle qu’il s’agit d’une très ancienne partition grecque et plus particulièrement d’une tragédie, une Médée. Une particularité grammaticale du texte permet d’en identifier le compositeur, Carcinos Le Jeune, un auteur cité par Aristote dans sa Rhétorique, où le philosophe et précepteur d’Alexandre le Grand cite quelques vers de cette tragédie.

En découvrant peu à peu la vie de Carcinos, dont le nom est gravé sur un mur du Parthénon, c’est tout un monde qui s’ouvre à nous : celui de musiciens grecs honorés comme des dieux et qui parcouraient la Méditerranée pour participer à des concours sur le modèle des Jeux Olympiques. 

Mais comment décrypter la musique de la Médée ? Un manuscrit médiéval, décrivant le système de notation musical antique grec, les Tables d’Alypius, va se révéler être une véritable « pierre de Rosette ». 

Mais pour entendre la Médée telle qu’elle a été entendue par les Grecs il y a 2400 ans, encore faut-il la jouer avec les instruments d’époque. Des cités grecques d’Anatolie à l’Égypte des Ptolémée, du site mythique de Delphes aux découvertes faites à Pompéi, nous irons sur tout le pourtour de la Méditerranée, là où les fouilles archéologiques nous ont livré quelques partitions antiques et quantité de vestiges d’instruments.

C’est lors d’un concert, donné dans le prestigieux théâtre antique d’Arles, que nous donnerons à entendre au public, avec la Médée de Carcinos rendue à la vie, un monde sonore que l’on croyait disparu à tout jamais : la musique de l’Antiquité grecque.

The accompanying Youtube film is sadly no longer available

https://www.o2bfilms.com/echos-de-lantiquite

 

Greek philosophers Alexander knew

In April 2021, Mark Cartwright published an article in World History with a selection of twenty Greek philosophers. When I looked at the dates, I was amazed to discover that most of these men lived roughly one century before Alexander the Great was born. This means that the young prince and later king was familiar with their works and teaching, which covered many fields. 

Most prominent are Socrates  (c. 469-399 BC), Plato (427 - 348/347 BC), and Aristotle (384-322 BC), who are often mentioned in one breath as pre-Socratic philosophers. But there are many other great names like Pythagoras (c. 571 - c. 497 BC), who juggled with numbers, Democritus (c. 460- c. 370 BC), who wisely stated that nothing comes from nothing, Epicurus (341-270 BC), who focused on the pleasures of life, and the eccentric Diogenes (c. 404-323 BC), the hippy of antiquity. 

The knowledge of these thinkers had a significant influence on the world of antiquity (including Alexander) and still inspires us in modern times. Many of these philosophers never put any of their philosophy down in writing; if they did, their own letters seldom survived. In these cases, their teaching reached us through their pupils or followers. 

The philosophy of Socrates (c. 469-399 BC) was recorded by one of his pupils, Plato. He, in turn, taught Aristotle (384-322 BC), who became the tutor of young Alexander. Thanks to Alexander’s conquests, Greek knowledge and philosophy were spread throughout the ancient world. 

Another remarkable student of Socrates was Xenophon, a favorite author of Alexander, as he recounted how he led a large group of Greek mercenaries back to Greece. These soldiers had been hired by Cyrus, who had died at the battle of Cunaxa (near Babylon) in September 401 BC (see: The Persian Expedition by Xenophon). The great merit of Socrates was that he inspired men to think for themselves – a relatively modern concept! Sadly, this great mind was sentenced to death and forced to drink poison after being accused of corrupting the youth of Athens. 

Plato (427-348/347 BC) penned down his philosophical works, which would eventually influence world culture. His thoughts greatly impacted the three monotheistic religions known: as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He was also the founder of the first university in the world named after him, Plato’s Academy in Athens. This happened after Socrates’ death and his own return from traveling to Egypt and Italy. Most of Plato’s works discussed the ideas expressed by Socrates, rightfully so or not. The philosopher was 80 years old when he died. His Academy may have lived on for almost 1,000 years until Emperor Justinian, a zealous new Christian believer, closed it to suppress paganism. 

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a philosopher in his own right who made considerable contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, biology, and botany. He has already been treated in previous blogs like Stagira, the Birthplace of Aristotle, and Aristotle’s 2,400th birthday with an appropriate celebration. 

Then there is Pythagoras (c. 571- c. 497 BC), best known for his famous Theorem stating that the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle equals the sum of the squares of the two other sides. However, he was also the first to concentrate on the transmigration of souls, in other words, reincarnation. The details of Pythagoras’ life remain obscure, but apparently, he traveled to Babylon and Egypt. However, this Theorem may not have been his invention but copied from the Babylonians. Also, the idea of reincarnation may have been transmitted to him by the Egyptian priests. In antiquity, he was considered a mystic and not the mathematician we remember nowadays. In any case, he influenced the philosophy and thoughts of both Plato and Aristotle and of many later philosophers far into our modern way of thinking. 

In turn, Democritus (c. 460-c. 370 BC) revolutionized the world as he claimed that the universe and everything in it was made of tiny undividable building blocks, which we call atoms. Although he may have written as many as 70 books, none of his work has survived. He touched on various topics like human origins, ethics, geography, astronomy, geometry, medicine, poetry, literature, and even farming. Aristotle, later on, cited parts of his works. Like Pythagoras, Democritus is thought to have spent time in Egypt to study mathematics and in Babylon, where he sought the company of the priests. He seems to have voyaged around the Mediterranean and further East to Persia and India. 

Next on the list is Epicurus (341–270 BC), who taught that “Pleasure is the principle and end to a happy life.” The modern adage may have been translated into “A laughter a day keeps the doctor away.” Epicurus was strongly influenced by Plato, Aristotle, and Democritus. From 307 BC onward, he lived in Athens, where he founded his school, The Garden. Here he welcomed both women and slaves, which clearly was not to the liking of the Athenians. Putting pleasure as his highest goal in life was often misunderstood. For Epicurus, pleasure should be seen as eating and drinking in moderation and leading a life of restful contemplation. He needed to “not spoil what you have desiring what you have not; remember that what you now have was once among the things you only hoped for.” He died from kidney stones at 71, but his school and philosophy would live long after this death. 

Last on this top list is Diogenes (c. 404-323 BC), who became famous for squatting in a barrel on the agora of Athens and living as a beggar from the gifts of his admirers. He was a contemporary of Alexander and died in the same year as the king. Legend has it that they met during Alexander’s visit to Corinth (see: Alexander meeting Diogenes in Corinth). This philosopher believed it was necessary to reject all that was unnecessary in life, not only one’s personal possessions but also one’s social status. The first part of this philosophy was widely accepted by Alexander, who did not care much for personal possessions! What must have shocked Diogenes' contemporaries is that he was very straightforward in his conversations and didn’t care for the rules of etiquette and good manners. Although Diogenes wished that his dead body would be thrown to the dogs, and despite his critics, he was buried with honor. 

There are, of course, many other great names such as Thales of Miletus (625-547 BC), one of the Seven Sages of ancient Greece (see: Miletus, more than a city), Parmenides, founder of the Eleatic School at the beginning of the 5th century (see: Magna Graecia, the forgotten Greek legacy) that was attended by Zeno of Elea (5th century BC) and Melissus of Samos (5th century BC) – maybe even by Xenophanes of Colophon (570-c. 478 BC) but that is not proven. 

Also listed in Mark Cartwright’s article are:

Anaximander of Miletus (c. 610-c. 545 BC), a friend of Thales wrote about astronomy as he apparently was the first to use the gnomon to determine solstices, time, seasons, and equinoxes. He also published a work on geography with the first map of the inhabited world (see: Miletus, more than a city). 

Anaximenes of Miletus was a younger contemporary and pupil of Anaximander. His theory was that the prime substance was pneuma, i.e., breath or air world (see: Miletus, more than a city) 

According to Plato, Antisthenes of Athens (c. 445-365 BC) was a follower of Socrates and may have witnessed his death. He was the founder of the Cynic School and wrote on subjects like physics, literature, and logic. 

Aristippus of Cyrene (c. 435-356 BC) founded the Cyrenaic School of Philosophy. He believed that pleasure and pursuing pleasure was the highest goal in life. That sounds rather odd coming from a pupil of Socrates. He died the year Alexander was born.

Heraclitus of Ephesus, an early Pre-Socratic philosopher who sought to identify the creation of the world (see: Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea. Why the Greeks Matter by Thomas Cahill) 

Protagoras of Abdera (c. 485-415 BC) also stood out. After all, he was the first philosopher to promote subjectivity because everything was relative to individual interpretation. In simple words, man is the measure of all things. He was the greatest among the Sophists, i.e., rhetoric, politics, and logic teachers who made a living as private tutors to the youth of the upper classes, especially in Athens. He taught them how to speak well – hence, our word sophisticated. Unlike Socrates, he was accused of impiety, which, in ancient Greece, meant he was executed. At age 71, Protagoras decided to flee from Athens before he was put on trial. Sadly, he drowned before he reached Sicily. 

Zeno of Citium on the island of Cyprus (336-265 BC). He was born in the year Alexander became king. By chance, he was exposed to the teachings of Socrates through the book, Memorabilia, written by Xenophon. Zeno’s study eventually led him to become a teacher himself as he founded a school on the porches (the Stoa) of Athens’ Agora. That’s how his school got its name, Stoic. Stoicism would become one of the most influential philosophies in the Roman world.

All in all, this is a substantial baggage the young King of Macedonia took with him to the East!

The rich history of olive oil

Most of us believe that the olive tree originated in Greece from where it spread over the entire Mediterranean. It thus may come as a surprise to learn that the oldest ones were found in ancient Israel around 5,000 BC. The olive oil was exported to Greece and Egypt until Crete and Cyprus started to produce their own, and eventually the production reached mainland Greece. The Greek and Phoenician colonists, in turn, introduced the olive tree to Italy, Iberia, and North Africa. In the wake of Alexander’s conquests and the subsequent Roman occupations, the olive tree became familiar in those lands, boosting warm summers and little rainfall. 

Olive trees obviously were most famous for their oil. The Greeks believed that the earlier they pressed the olives, the finer the quality of the oil was as they were still green. However, if they let them ripen longer till they were black, they would produce more oil. Then and now, the best quality oil came from the first pressing. 

Generally, the olives were crushed underfoot – a process that survived till far into the 20^th century. Several examples of these “presses” have survived, such as those found at Mesembria in Eastern Greece. A large slab or a terracotta lid on an earthen pot was perforated with holes, and the crusher would press the fruit by trampling the olives with his feet. The pulp was collected in a basin or jar underneath the lid and was then filtered. 

The earliest presses consisted of a large round millstone, usually pulled by a donkey. Those stones would roll over the olives poured into a circular container. The resulting pulp was then filtered through stacked baskets and pressed with a heavy rock placed on top. A good example has been found in Olynthus. Although the process may sound rather primitive, the end result was pretty satisfactory. 

It is not rare to find olive trees amongst fruit trees, and the field owners would let some sheep graze the groves to keep them free of grass and weeds. Moreover, the residue of the oil pressing process could be used as feed for the pigs. 

The demand for olive oil grew with the Roman Empire's expansion, and eventually, Constantinople became one of the leading importers.  Also, vineyards and olive farms arose in Syria and Cilicia, and they reached the peak of their capacity in the 3^rd-5^th century AD. In any case, the principal producers were located in the regions of Attica in Greece, Italy, Baetica in Spain, Cyrenaica in Libya, Venafrum in Italy, and the island of Samos. To meet the high demand for oil, the Romans developed screw presses which were more performing to crush the olives. In those days, it is believed that oil production reached such a high level that we had to wait till the 19th century to see it improved. 

Olive oil was and remains an essential ingredient in Mediterranean cuisine. However, many other implementations were known, such as fuel for the lamps or a component to make perfumes. Another application was to cleanse the body of the Greek and Roman athletes from dirt and sweat using a strigil. 

The most popular way to store and transport the oil was the common amphora, which came in all shapes and forms depending on their country of origin, the manufacturer and the merchant. 

Beyond the success story of the olive oil, the tree acquired a sacred significance when the olive branch became a sign of peace and a crown for the winners at the ancient Olympic Games. 

The olive branch was very favorite in Classical Athens, where the tree was considered a gift from Athena. The sacred tree stood on the Acropolis close to the Erechtheion and has been replaced with a new version in modern times. Pilgrims also carried olive branches on their way to the oracle at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. 

This all means that the importance of the olive tree reached far beyond oil extraction and usage.

The birth of Egyptology under Napoleon

Napoleon was fascinated by Alexander the Great, and for that reason, he deserves some attention as France celebrated the bicentenary of Napoleon’s death on 5 May 2021. 

The young general launched his Egyptian campaign in 1798 in order to cut off the British route to India. At the same time, he intended to free Egypt from the Mameluk warriors. With his fleet, he landed in Alexandria and fought his way inland to Cairo and the Pyramids. Unfortunately for him, the British Royal Navy, under the command of Lord Nelson, sunk the French fleet on the Nile, and Napoleon was forced to return to France, leaving his troops behind – something Alexander would never have done! 

However, Napoleon somehow managed to turn his disastrous campaign into a cultural and scientific victory. Egypt, in those days, had little or no interest in the legacy of the great pharaohs from antiquity, which they dismissed as pagan. 

Inspired by Alexander, Napoleon added a large number of scientists, engineers, artists, cartographers, botanists, mathematicians, and art connoisseurs to his army. History does not remember most of their names, but it is worth mentioning, for instance, Mathieu de Lesseps, whose son Ferdinand built the Suez Canal half a century later (see also: The canal of the pharaohs, the Suez Canal of antiquity). Napoleon founded the Institute of Egypt with four distinctive sections: Mathematics, Physics, Political Economy, and Literature and Arts. 

Napoleon’s scientific expedition made extensive studies of the pyramids and temples of Egypt and in particular of the statues of Pharaohs like the head of Amenhotep III, which can still be admired in the Louvre today. At that time, a slab of black basalt was discovered at Rosetta, some 35 miles from Alexandria, displaying a trilingual inscription in Greek, Demotic and Egyptian hieroglyphs. 

After the Battle of the Nile in 1798, Napoleon lost most of the excavated objects to the British, including the Stone of Rosetta and the Sarcophagus of Nectanebo II, which, among other items, ended up in the British Museum. 

Importantly, the French Egyptologist Jean-Francois Champollion deciphered the hieroglyphs using the Greek text on the Stone of Rosetta to guide him. This was a huge step forward in discovering and studying the culture of ancient Egypt. Interestingly, the inscription on the stone honors Ptolemy V, who lived from 210-180 BC. 

During his extensive campaigns, Napoleon didn’t shy away from acquiring whatever artifact pleased him or was of some value. Most of his collection ended up at the Louvre and included, for instance, the Horses of San Marco in Venice (which originally stood in the Hippodrome of Constantinople) and one splendid frieze from the Parthenon in Athens.

The history of Babylon in a nutshell

World History Encyclopedia recently posted a YouTube video retelling the history of Babylon in a nutshell. It gives a  fascinating and concise overview covering thousands of years of the city’s existence.

A striking detail, in my eyes, is a cuneiform cylinder holding an inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II, on which he describes the construction of the outer city wall of Babylon. This event is dated to ca. 604-562 BC. At first glance, one can take it for the cylinder of Cyrus the Great written in 539 BC telling his conquest of Babylon (see: The Cyrus cylinder and Ancient Persia: A New Beginning) . It is tempting to believe that the Nebuchadnezzar cylinder inspired Cyrus to commemorate his own great deeds.

Could Alexander have been aware of this?

Landslide blocking the Canal of Corinth

Although the Canal of Corinth has been built way after Alexander’s days, it remains a vital infrastructure that he would have admired. After all, it connects both ancient harbors of Corinth, Lechaion and Kenchreai (see: Corinth before the canal was built) in a far more efficient and time-saving way than before. Until its completion in 1893, lightweight and heavy warships were hauled over the Diolkos from one side to the other using a platform along the connecting road. 

At present, the Canal is in the news because, in January 2021, a landslide occurred about halfway through this narrow channel. Huge rocks and all sorts of debris are clearly visible from the bridge above. 

Consequently, no ship can use this busy thoroughfare. From cargo ships to cruise ships and private yachts, all have now to sail around the entire peninsula of the Peloponnese. The cost for such a detour is much higher, which will have consequences for the transport industry as well as for tourism. Additionally, Greece is facing an increase in the expenses for fuel and transportation of merchandise in general. The people taking care of the Canal's operation are facing a lack of revenues pending the clearing of the waterway. 

The repair should be a priority for such a busy maritime passage, but a clear timetable is not available. It is estimated that the preliminary studies will be completed by September 2021, and the project will go up for a bid. Once the Ministry of Infrastructure & Transport has agreed on the price, the preliminary works on the walls of the Canal can begin.  

An estimation as to when the Canal of Corinth shall reopen to maritime traffic remains uncertain. 

Amphipolis beyond the Kasta Hill

Much ink has been spilled on the promising excavations of Kasta Hill at a short distance from the town of Amphipolis proper. For that reason, the importance of this city harbor has been seriously neglected. 

Amphipolis was an Athenian colony founded in the 5th century BC. It was surrounded by a 7.5-kilometer-long wall, probably dating from the Classical Period, but the date has not been confirmed yet. It would be interesting though, to know whether Philip II had attacked it in 356 BC when he ousted the Athenians in power. Amphipolis was key to the king’s conquest because it sat on the mouth of the Strymon River which gave him access to the mines of Crenides (later renamed Philippi) and opened up the trading route with Thracia (see: Macedonia’s gold and silver mines today). 

[Picture from Structurae.net]

When Alexander set out from Pella towards Asia in 334 BC, he crossed the bridge of Amphipolis (see: Bridge of Amphipolis used by Alexander), which was constructed at some time between 600 and 550 BC and was first mentioned in history during the Peloponnese War of 422 BC. 

The city has a lot to tell us, as the occasional photographic and on-site research reveals. However, the archaeologists seek financial support to establish what Amphipolis looked like in the days of Alexander and how it changed by the time Philip V died here in 179 BC. So far, it has been recorded that the city possessed a well-preserved Gymnasium and the remains of a Hellenistic house with frescoed walls. 

At present, special attention is given to the Acropolis of Amphipolis located within sight of Kasta Hill. Scholars tell us that it becomes easy to understand the city's importance as this location gave its citizens full control over the Strymon River, the gateway to the sea and Crenides, and the overland route into Thracia.

In the past two years, archaeologists have concentrated on the Acropolis, whose inner walls were exposed in the 1960s and 1970s. Otherwise, there is a lot of architectural debris lying around. At the same time, other parts have been reused by the Romans to rebuild the city’s fortifications. The same applied to the Christians when they built their monuments. These public buildings stand on top of older layers, and the current five-year plan (2019-2023) will concentrate on the pre-Christian Acropolis. 

[Picture from Archaeology News Network. Aerial view of the Basilica C with the Hellenistic building below it. [Credit: Kathimerini]

The bottom line is that we still need more patience before establishing a solid link with Alexander in the early days of his kingship.

How to value a burial mound

It is hard to imagine finding burial mounds in Ukraine, which comes in the news because of its constant frictions and wars with Russia. What do we know about its history and its culture?

Until recently, farmers had little or no concern about what these 4,000-year-old mounds on their fields might contain, even when they came across a skeleton. Under Soviet rule, the mounds had to make way for farming land, and many sites were irreparably flattened. An estimated 100,000 such tumuli were erased forever, and the remaining ones are at risk from grave robbers. 

[The skeleton and gold jewelry of a Scythian noblewoman, dating to the 4th century BC, on display at the Museum of Historical Treasures in Kyiv, Ukraine 

[Credit: Brendan Hoffman/The New York Times]

Government archaeologists and developers obviously had opposite views about these mounds, and it seems that the Ukrainian people have little or no knowledge of their precious past history. The situation in neighboring Kazakhstan and southern Russia is not much different. 

Two years ago, a Ukrainian nongovernmental group came forward to preserve this Scythian heritage and founded a group called Guardians of the Mounds. They aim to protect as many of the remaining tumuli as possible from further destruction. Once the ground is flattened and the valuables inside have been removed, construction was allowed on top of them. Otherwise, they were left available for farming. 

The Guardians of the Mounds have their work cut out because the landscape is scattered with tumuli, which served as a burial ground for some noblemen and signaled that the area was home to many strong people. Of the nomadic warriors who occupied the land, the best known were the Scythians. They were buried with much of their prized possessions like golden jewelry and dishes. Besides, they were accompanied by their wives and horses.

It seems that many museums in Kyiv display a rich collection of gold artifacts, which unfortunately have been pulled out of their context. Experts from the Museum of Historical Treasures in Kyiv believe that the Guardians should lobby the government on zoning laws, which apparently are non-existent. The country’s construction plans appear to be unstoppable. Another danger may be that the mounds were still used for burials by the Communist Party and WWII heroes.

A typical example is the ongoing excavations at the site of Dnipro, which has been robbed repeatedly over the centuries. This tumulus goes back to a prehistoric Indo-Iranian culture but has been reused in the 4th century BC when another catacomb was built about five meters below the surface. Plundering the Scythian burial sites always was and still is a lucrative business. The most valuable artifacts are freely offered on online auction sites. 

Professional scholars should be allowed to study the past history of Ukraine, where registered archaeological monuments are already being destroyed and surrendered to private owners. Unfortunately, local authorities don’t intervene as they are eager to find precious grave goods and don’t pay attention to the historical and cultural value. 

Meanwhile, members of the Guardians of the Mounds have been rebuilding six tumuli in a field north of Kyiv that counts 18 graves in total. Their effort is praiseworthy but does not really replace the damage done. 

Tomb robbery is of all times, but in our 21st century, we might expect a little more respect and appreciation for a country’s rich cultural history and heritage.