Imagine Alexander being confronted with Etruscan art

After his eastern campaign, Alexander returned to Babylon and started his preparations to conquer the West. His plans included Arabia, Northern Africa focusing on Carthage, and the Italic peninsula where Rome was building up its power. 

The Etruscan civilization had reached its apogee around 750 BC and flourished in three city confederations: Etruria, which covered modern Tuscany, Latium and Umbria; the Po Valley with the eastern part of the Alps; and Campania. Their culture was influenced by that of the ancient Greeks who started to found colonies in southern Italy to become the later Magna Graecia. 

[A pair of terracotta winged horses from the Temple of the Ara della Regina, Tarquinia. Etruscan, c. 350 BC (National Archaeological Museum, Tarquinia, Italy. Picture from World History]

In Alexander’s days, the Etruscans had started to be assimilated by the Romans – a process that ended in 27 BC when they were totally incorporated into the Roman Empire. Their art, however, had been heavily influenced by Greece’s Classical period of the 5^th and 4^th century BC, which was familiar to Alexander. 

This very idea hit me after looking at an article in World History, in which a gallery of 25 top pieces from Etruscan art are being presented. Overall, this art is best known from the frescoed walls inside the many tombs like those centered in the necropolises of Tarquinia and Cerveteri. But scrolling through the images from the above mentioned gallery there are also very telling terracotta figures, unique friezes and fine bronze statues. 

I like to think that Alexander would have felt very much at home walking among these images. The  Etruscans did not shy away from other forms of art and readily acquired foreign artifacts (even from the East!) to embellish their houses and tombs. It is surprising to learn that they sculpted the first nude women, way before the Greek culture accepted the very idea (see: Was Alexander the Great aware of Cnidos?) 

It is worth flipping through the pictures in the gallery presented by Word History to get a comprehensive view of this particular civilization that enjoyed life so much! 

It would have been interesting to know Alexander’s reaction if confronted with the Etruscans and their rich culture.

About the Paeonians

So very little is known about the Paeonians, who occupied the lands north of ancient Macedonia. 

The borders of Paeonia were not clearly defined. As an Illyrian tribe, they settled along the upper valley of the Vadar River, the Axios, as it entered Macedonia. The country was roughly squeezed between the Dardanians and the Macedonians (see: The King is dead, long live the King!), matching more or less the state of modern Northern Macedonia. The Paeonians comprised Illyrian tribes such as the Agrianes and the lesser-known Derrones, Doberes, Laiaians, Siriopaeones, and Paeoplai. 

In 358 BC, one year into his kingship Philip defeated the Paeonians and secured his northern border. By doing so, he created a sort of buffer zone between Macedonia and the tribes of the Danube further north. Paeonia controlled the trade route up the Axios River that emptied into the Gulf of Thessaloniki at Pella, the capital of Macedonia. 

It was probably at this time that Parmenion, one of the Paeonian chieftains, was promoted to the rank of general at Philip's side. We often forget this interesting background for a man who served both Philip and Alexander for so many years. 

Alexander levied one ilai of about 150 Paeonian cavalry when he started his eastern campaign. A reinforcement of 500 Paeonians joined him in Egypt in 332 BC, and another 600 cavalry in Susa in 331 BC. 

If we consult Arrian, we learn that Alexander often used the Paeonians as part of the "sacrificial pawn." This was an elite unit that he placed in front of his right flank to keep the Persians busy and to create enough confusion whereby he would find a wedge in the enemy's line.

The first such attack is described at the Granicus when advanced Scouts, the Paeonians, one infantry company, and a leading cavalry squadron were sent forward. At the same time, Alexander moved in an oblique line to pull the Persians on the opposite river bank further to his right to create a gap in their lines. A similar move was made at Issus when he threw forward his advanced Scouts together with the Paeonians and the archers to force an opening in the Persian line. 

At the Battle of Gaugamela, the situation was different. As Alexander led his cavalry ever further to the right, Darius sent the Scythian chariots forward to cut off Alexander's progress. At this point, the Paeonian contingent and the mercenaries were sent to neutralize their progress, in which they were successful. 

After that, the Paeonians are no longer mentioned, and it is generally admitted that they settled in one of Alexander's newly built cities. 

What brought me to talk about the Paeonians are the recent excavations at the city of Stobi, which was founded in the 6^th century BC. It stood out as a trade center and a military and religious center. It also was the seat of the Paeonian Kings and the capital of the later Roman province Salutaris. 

Today, the city can be found close to the village of Gradsko, situated about 80 kilometers from Skopje in Northern Macedonia. The archaeological site covers some 27 hectares, spread over three terraces. Besides the ever-present theater, a significant number of buildings have been exposed. 

The major reference point at Stobi is, as always, the theater that dates from the 2^nd-3^rd century AD and could seat as many as 17,000 spectators. 

So far, several roads have been mapped out and named. The Via Axia, for instance, is one of the main streets running east-west and would match the Roman Decumanus. The Via Theodosia was parallel to the Via Axia, unearthed between the House of Peristerius and the Palace of Theodosius. Another important road is baptized as Via Principalis Inferior, running from the main city fountain, past edifices like the Central Basilica, the House of Partenis, the Palace of Theodosius, and the House of Psalms. The fountain was on a small square where the Via Axia and the Via Principalis Inferior met.

The Northern Basilica, Civil Basilica, Central Basilica, and Episcopal Basilica from the 5^th century AD clearly stand out because of their striking mosaics and tall columns. The private houses are interesting for their layout, rich mosaic floors, and imposing colonnades. The Palace of Theodosius is where Emperor Theodosius lived in 388 AD. It is of interest because of its remarkable floors in the opus sectile. In the pool area, a splendid bronze satyr was discovered, together with bronze sculptures of Apollo, Aphrodite, and Lar, and a marble head of Serapis. Some of these precious artifacts date from the 2nd century BC, indicating Stobi's Hellenistic connections or roots. These pieces can be admired at the National Museum of Belgrade.

[Picture from Discovering Macedonia]

So far, the information about the excavations and the history of Stobi could not be more sketchy. Even the available maps provide only basic outlines. It will be interesting to see how the research and the mapping will progress in the years to come.

There is no reference to Alexander or his father, but it is common that the Romans erased the traces from the previous occupations. Like their Balkan neighbors, the Paeonians have no written history, and all information comes from their conquerors and/or enemies, which is not always reliable.

[The maps are provided by the St Louis Community Center]

Buried with bed and all

During expansion works of the lignite mine in Mavropigi, Upper Macedonia, some 65 km southwest of Vergina, the grave of a woman has been discovered. It was remarkable because it could be proved that she had been buried with bed and all. 

Beds are generally made of wood, which disintegrates over the centuries. This is also the case for the present example, except for the bronze bed legs – the only ones that survived the test of time. The burial custom to place the dead on a bed was pretty common in the area of Pella and Pieria but none had been found till now. Eventually scholars were able to reconstruct a miniature model which they consider to be very realistic. They agree that this bed was the most luxurious and expensive anyone could afford in the first or perhaps second century BC. The plan is to make a truthful reconstruction that will find a place of choice at the Archaeological Museum of Aiani. 

[Picture credit: ANA-MPA]

The valuable and abundant grave goods indicate that the region of Mavropigi enjoyed a high degree of prosperity and it is not impossible that this burial is linked to a royal family as is the case in neighboring Aiani. 

Based on the golden laurel leaves that surrounded the head of this woman, it has been suggested that she might belong to such royalty although they may also indicate that she held some important religious position since the laurel refers to Apollo. She also had a golden mouthpiece and on her hand bits of gold threads have been found, which may have been part of her dress or a veil that covered her body. The grave yielded a bone needle and a stone bead, and the woman was crowned with four clay myrrh pots, a clay amphora and a glass myrrh pot. The bones of this woman will be examined at the laboratory of Aiani for anthropological study. 

The region of Upper Macedonia seldom makes headlines. However, it should be noted that Ptolemy, the later Pharaoh of Egypt was born here, more precisely at Eordea. From similar origin were Aristonous, one of Alexander’s Bodyguards and Peithon, another Bodyguard who after the king’s death became satrap of Media.

Excavations in the Peraia of Samothrace

Except for the greater Athens area, Greece is generally very much underrated when we consider its wealth of archaeological sites. Most people and tourists limit their visit to Attica, extending it possibly to Delphi and the Monasteries of the Meteors to the north and a few antique cities in the northern Peloponnesus. Since the discovery of  King Philip’s tomb in Vergina (ancient Aegae) and the rekindled interest in Alexander the Great in his hometown of Pella, Thessaloniki has become another hub of interest. Otherwise, much of mainland Greece remains to be explored. 

[Picture Credit Peraiao of Samothrace Project from Archaeology News Network]

One such ignored region is the Peraia of Samothrace, i.e., a series of colonies founded by Samothrace along the coastline of Greece’s province of Thracia north of the island. In an earlier blog (see: What is the Peraia of Samothrace?) I mentioned the major settlements by name: Cape Serreion, Drys, Sale, Zone, Mesembria, and Makri, which were founded from the 6^th century BC onward. The towns of Tempira and Charakoma, on the other hand, date from Roman times. 

At present, a project has been started to examine the topography of the Peraia of Samothrace and to survey sites located further inland. Most of them have been excluded from archaeological excavations that were only concentrated on the cities of Maroneia and Zone, but Drys and Sale clearly deserve special attention since they were the most important and longest-lived settlements. 

The first surveys were started in October 2020 but were soon interrupted because of the pandemic. The project will continue in 2021 focusing on archaeological research proper, geophysical survey, and remote sensing. Complementary work will include the study of ancient sources, historical maps, and whatever literature is available. Small artifacts in stone, bits of ceramics, shells, and blades have been collected so far and provide clues as to the sites to dig. Most of the fieldwork is expected to be completed this year but the parties involved are facing a huge task. 

The Peraia of Samothrace was of strategic interest in particular for the hinterland of Thracia, which by itself is worth exploring as well (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara, Greece). Today the province of Thracia is part of eastern Greece - a country repeatedly conquered by Macedonian kings from Philip II to Philip V and later on by the Romans (see: A solid gold bust of Septimius Severus). The rich civilizations that once thrived here (including the Ottomans in more recent times) deserve to be studied very closely. 

The progress of the planned survey is updated regularly and can be followed on www.peraiasamothraceproject.gr and on the project's Twitter account.

About the preservation of mosaics

Mosaics from whatever time period or location always have a lot to tell about customs, religion, and simple daily life, and as such are very valuable testimonies of our past. 

Yet, as soon as the precious tesserae are exposed, the question arises about what to do with the mosaic and about the best way to preserve it. 

The problem was first confronted during the 18^th century when sites like Pompeii and Herculaneum were excavated. In those days, archaeology was not established as a proper science and most of the finds were carried away to be displayed in the mansions of the rich and famous. As a result, the mosaics were taken apart and the most pleasing pictures were framed in simple or elaborate frames. 

As the number of excavations steadily grew in the 19^th and 20^th centuries, archaeology matured equally and it became clear that not all mosaics – and certainly not the larger ones – could be moved for conservation inside a museum. 

Another option was to rebury the mosaics. To this purpose and probably by trial and error, different materials such as soil, gravel, or sand were used to cover the mosaics. The most obvious material was the soil, which was readily available at the excavation site. Besides, it made sense to rebury the mosaics using the same material that had contributed to their survival for many centuries. Nowadays, sand and gravel with or without plastic netting are often implemented all over antique sites. 

I often regret that I cannot actually have a look at those hidden treasures although I totally understand the logic behind this decision. However, standing at the entrance of the Royal Palace in Aegae and not being able to see the large round mosaic of the Tholos or Sanctuary is rather frustrating. In other places, like in Dion, Greece, (see: Dion, the Macedonian Sanctuary), strolling among the remains of Roman houses is not as rewarding as it could be if the many floors were exposed. 

At times, in order to help the visitor visualize the wealth of the mosaics in situ, shelters have been built to protect the precious stones under all circumstances. There are many such cases, such as Pella, Greece, or Nea Paphos in Cyprus. 

In the end, it all depends on the circumstances and the locations where the mosaics are discovered. In Zeugma, Turkey, (see: Zeugma, Border-town along the Euphrates River) even larger floors were removed from the site because the old city was to be flooded after the construction of a dam on the Euphrates. The only way to save what could be saved was to remove the mosaics and shelter them in a newly constructed museum in Gaziantep. 

Mosaic floors that belong to extensive villas are nowadays generally kept intact. A good example is the huge Villa of Piazza Armerina in Sicily (best known for the pictures of the bikini-girls) which has been largely roofed. On other occasions, the entire basement of the villa is cleared and made accessible underground as is the case in Ravenna, Italy. This site, called Tapeti di Pietra (carpets of stone) had been discovered during the construction of a parking lot underneath a modern building. Another similar situation occurred in Antakya, Turkey (see: Antakya’s rich collection of mosaics) where the heavily undulating mosaic floor will be incorporated into the hotel that is under construction. 

It appears that there are many options to safeguard a mosaic floor, all depending on the location and the circumstances in which they are found. Overall, the best and safest conservation choice is the reburial technique. However, this has to be done very carefully and the site must be kept under surveillance. It is sad to find mosaics disintegrating because the layer of sand and gravel is not thick enough and curious or malicious visitors scratch the protection away to expose the mosaics underneath. Many archaeological sites in the Middle East and North Africa are being damaged beyond repair like in Ptolemais, Libya (see: Ptolemais, heritage of the Ptolemies in the Cyrenaica).

Work in progress at the site of Philippi

As announced in 2018 (see: Improving the archaeological site of Philippi), the disaffected asphalt road in Philippi  that separated the theater and Paul’s prison in the older part from the Byzantine churches and the Roman houses in the lower section has been removed. 

[Credit ANA-NPA]

Excavations on that portion of Philippi have not started yet but a geophysical survey was carried out providing the necessary information on where to dig. It appears that traces of a number of hitherto unknown public buildings have been found, including vertical roads that once connected the theater with the ancient Via Egnatia. 

In the present state, archaeologists hope to find galleries and staircases that connect both parts of the city, including objects of daily use. 

The archaeologists expect to change the overall picture of Philippi once the new entrance at the so-called Gate of Neapolis at the junction of the car park and the disaffected asphalt road is completed. To this effect, the existing concrete bridge will be demolished and the adjacent city walls restored.

Once this is done, future visitors will be able to access the ancient city over a comfortable cobblestone pathway running about one meter above the remains of the Via Egnatia. This road will lead them to the staircase descending to the Octagon with its precious floor mosaics. 

At present, the three-aisled Basilica B from 550 AD is undergoing a thorough restoration. The marble arches will be reinforced and a first attempt will be made to reconstruct the Basilica’s interior which was destroyed when the dome collapsed during its construction. In the process, the delicate capitals of the columns will be consolidated.

Hidden treasures of Epirus

Northern Greece and Epirus, in particular, are not top destinations for the common tourist – unfortunately so. 

Epirus is wedged in the northwestern corner of Greece, and this rugged mountainous landscape shares borders with Albania. It is also the homeland of Queen Olympias, Alexander’s mother. 

[Picture from Wikipedia]

The best-known site is the sanctuary of Dodona, which King Pyrrhus of Epirus promoted as the religious capital in 290 AD. It features a remarkable theater and is seen as the oldest Hellenic oracle. Other notable places are Gitana (3^rd century BC), Amvracia (founded in the 7^th century BC. It was given to Pyrrhus by the son of Cassander in 294 BC); Cassope (founded in the 4^th century BC), and Nicopolis (founded in 28 BC by Octavian after his victory at Actium). 

At present, a project has been conceived to link the theaters of these towns together and to create a brand new tourist trail. The idea behind this plan is that from antiquity onward, theaters are places where people met and interacted on different levels. 

These five archaeological sites are stringed along a circuit of 344 kilometers which the intrepid traveler can discover. Although the theater shares a common link, it is obvious that the sites have much more to offer when it comes to archaeology, history, culture, art, and modern daily life. 

The article from the Archaeology News Network puts the accent on developing tourism in the region. Still, the underlying historical value of the antique cities is not in the least described. Without their appropriate background, it is difficult to truly appreciate the theaters as their focal points.