The benefit of digitizing coins

All the museums and private collectors in the World possess innumerable coins, either from antiquity or simply dating to the past centuries or so. Until now, each coin had to be recorded and documented by hand – a labor lost.

[Scan of the base color of a coin issued by Konrad, Margrave of Meissen and holder ofthe coinage prerogative, mint date ca. 1150 [Credit: Fraunhofer IFF]

Even the trained eye finds it difficult to immediately recognize the authenticity of a coin. There may be differences in the design according to their provenance but the coins may also be replaced by forgeries after they traveled to outside exhibitions. How can experts be sure that they really receive their original coin back?

Unlike statues, reliefs or paintings, it is impossible to label, mark or barcode the coins. Joint research of the Fraunhofer IFF (Institute for Factory Operation and Automation) in Magdeburg, and the Saxony-Anhalt State Office for Heritage Management and Archaeology, both in Germany; have developed a satisfactory scanning software.

[Coin surface scan [Credit: Fraunhofer IFF]

The new scanner named O.S.C.A.R. (Optical System for Coin Analysis and Recognition) not only scans the features but also records every scratch, pit, denting or other wear, making each scanned object unique. This digitizing of both faces works very much like facial recognition of people, and guaranties an accuracy of at least 98%. The system accepts coins with diameters varying in size between 5 to 75 millimeters, no matter whether they are made of gold, silver, bronze or copper. In just a few seconds, this scanner can determine whether the coin is a full match or has been damaged or replaced by a fake.

To-date, some 10,000 coins from the above mentioned collection have been scanned and the remaining 10,000 will follow soon.

[Combined coin base color and surface scan [Credit: Fraunhofer IFF]

The scanning system works with several cameras and uses several light sources that shine on the coin from different angles, which in turn produces an image with high resolution. The scanner captures more than 1000 visual features for each coin and a reference charts ensures that the images are standardized in comparable color spaces. Numismatists will now be able to recognize both sides of the coins much faster and with higher precision. Eventually the data base can be compared with that of other institution.

Imagine the potential of this facial recognition system! Not only will museums and numismatics from all over the world have access to this system, but they will also be able to place each coin in their true historical context.

Imagine Bucephalus dressed up in his finest attire

Among the many colonies founded by Miletus on the western shore of the Black Sea is Apollonia Pontica (modern Sozopol in Bulgaria) in ca. 610 BC (see: The many colonies of Miletus). Its original name was Antheia, which soon became one of the largest naval bases and richest trade centers in the area.

By the 5^th century BC, the Odrysian Kingdom was founded that lasted for six centuries. This kingdom was nothing more than a union of more than forty tribes which turned Thracia into a powerful state to be reckoned with. Both Philip and Alexander repeatedly invaded Thracia, but the city of Apollonia Pontica managed to keep its independence.

This does not alter the fact that Hellenism left its marks in the area, and recent archaeological finds immediately to the south of Apollonia Pontica in particular revealed precious goods that once belonged to the Thracian aristocracy.

In a nearby tomb, archaeologists found forty decorative gold appliqués for a horse harness. Of course, the tomb is Thracian but the Hellenistic influence is obvious. Based on a clay lamp that was buried together with these precious items, the elements could be dated between 333 and 250 BC.

The date and the finding place make a connection with Alexander very plausible and I can’t help imagining his Bucephalus wearing very similar trimmings.

The reconstruction of the horse’s headdress speaks for itself. The casted centerpiece is an eagle’s head that weighed some 23 grams. Since the eagle stands for power, this find may indicate that the owner was a member of one of the leading dynasties. Most of the gold pieces were round, and scholars were able to establish that they were meant to decorate the bridle.  The smaller gold appliqués may have been fixed onto narrow strips sewn over the main strip, or the elements may have served to decorate the bridle during certain religious parades only. Two elaborated, elongated pieces were probably part of the bit.

The Thracians were famous for their horses and it does not come as a surprise to find such fine and artistic trimming for these noble animals. 

I am amazed, however, to hear that horsemen in Thracia already used spurs. If so, it is strange that Alexander and his Macedonians did not fancy them. It seems very improbable that he would not have known this - if, once again, the theory about the spurs is correct.

[Pictures from Horse Talk, New-Zealand, by G. Balabanov, Primorsko Municipality, and Petar Balabanov, respectively]

Turquoise mining site unknown to Alexander?

China is a long way from Alexander’s path but I can’t help wondering how much of China the Greeks knew after all. The subject has been developed in an earlier post The First Emperor, China’s Terracotta Army and Alexander the Great.

[Ruins of ancient village in northwest China's Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region] 

[Credit: Trip Advisor]

Anyway, a mining site in the eastern province of Xinjiang yielded more than 1,200 turquoise artifacts. Beside a large amount of pottery and bronze items, some textiles, and pieces of stone and bone were also found.

The mining site of approximately 8 sq km is located close to the ancient Silk Road and was active during two well-defined periods: the Spring and Autumn Period ranging from 700 to 476 BC, and the Warring States Period that covered the years 475 to 221 BC. This last end date coincides with the foundation of Qin’s Dynasty, i.e., that of the First Emperor. Interestingly, it is known that by 334 BC (during Alexander’s lifetime), there were seven Warring States: Qin, Chu, Wei, Han, Yan, and Qi, who were very much divided.

The discovery of the turquoise source seems to confirm industrial exchanges between Xinjiang and other regions of China. Based on these facts, it is not entirely impossible that Alexander had some knowledge of those far eastern states.

In any case, the influence of Hellenism in China has been established with the life-size and life-like terracotta figures of athletes (see: Alexander’s influence reached all the way to China) and with the vast terracotta army in the tomb of Emperor Qin (see: The First Emperor, China’s Terracotta Army and Alexander the Great)

The first archaeological surveys started in 2016 and will continue later this year.

The site of Kasta Hill and the Tomb of Amphipolis

Kasta Hill is a huge tumulus made of limestone having a perimeter of almost 500m which can easily be spotted from nearby Amphipolis. It is a landmark that inevitably impresses any visitor.

Since 2014, the hype of the Tomb of Amphipolis has traveled around the world as a wildfire but now that the fever has subsided, it is time to consider a number of facts that has been established since.

A first serious link with Hephaistion based on a monogram found at the tomb site was mentioned in an earlier blog (see: Amphipolis, a Heroon for Hephaistion?). Meanwhile, some have argued that this tomb was meant to contain the remains of both Alexander and Hephaistion but this does not look very plausible for different reasons.

Firstly, since only Alexander could be the one ordering the construction of a tomb for Hephaistion, most probably soon after his death in 324 BC. At that time, there was no reason for Alexander to plan his own grave next to his friend’s. We should keep in mind that Alexander could afford to call on the best professionals in every field from all over the world – which he frequently did. In the present case of building a tomb and/or memorial for his dearest friend Hephaistion, no expense was too high or too extravagant. It has, however, not been established what happened to the remains of Hephaistion after his body was burnt on the elaborate pyre that was built for him in Babylon. Most probably, the bones were washed in wine the Macedonian way, wrapped in a luxurious cloth (probably a purple one) and placed in a precious (most likely gold) casket or larnax that was lavishly decorated with precious stones. Alexander may have kept this larnax in his tent pending the burial in the tomb at Amphipolis but as the king himself died before returning to his homeland the project never materialized and it remains everybody’s guess what happened to the remains of Hephaistion. Besides, it is difficult to imagine who would have cared enough about him to take charge of the matter.

Secondly, and in spite of his deep love and affection for Hephaistion, Alexander was first and foremost the King, King of Macedonia and what’s more King of Kings. He was well aware of his kingship and what it meant for the people he had conquered, especially for the Persians. In his position, it was totally impossible for the Great King to be interred in such a far away place as Amphipolis. It may have been Parmenion to suggest that city as he still belonged to “the old Macedonian stock” and was convinced that the body of Alexander should return to Macedonia to be buried with his ancestors. But the body never arrived in Macedonia as it was diverted to Egypt instead.

On the other hand, there is the hypothesis about the image of the Rape of Persephone that is considered to be a common link between the Royal Macedonian tombs. The second chamber of the Amphipolis tomb contains indeed a mosaic floor depicting Persephone abducted by Pluto, god of the underworld. It has been suggested that this picture ties the tomb to the Macedonian royal family.

The oldest representation is to be found in the tomb of Eurydice, the mother of Philip II and Alexander’s grandmother. The next and probably most striking picture of the Rape of Persephone is the one associated with the tomb of Philip in Tumulus of Vergina. It is, however, important to note that it is not part of Philip’s tomb but painted on the wall of another tomb in the same tumulus, making it a weak candidate for belonging to Macedonian royalty. All in all, that hypothesis is not very convincing either.

A last theory or speculation that arose around the Tomb of Amphipolis is even stranger than the previous ones but, who knows, it may contain some truth after all. It has been calculated that on the day of the Equinox of 21 December the sun lights up the third room of the Amphipolis Tomb and would at some point shine in a straight line from Delphi. Well, for what it is worth …

The excavations at Kasta Hill have been stopped for now but with the material gathered so far the archaeologists have their work cut out. As always, we have to wait and see what will happen next.

[Picture of the Rape of Persephone from Vergina is from reddit]

A Celtic imitation of Alexander’s gold stater

Slovenia does not immediately spring to mind when it comes to archaeology but this message is truly an exception.

[Picture from RTV Slovenia - Photo credit ZRC SAZU]

Earlier this year, archaeologists were at work in Podzemelj unearthing as many as fifteen graves dated back to the 4^th century BC. Among these finds was a bronze belt with a gold coin, and this coin happens to be a Celtic imitation of an Alexander the Great stater, with Nike and Athena on the reverse. These figures are helpful to narrowing the coin down to the first half of the 3^rd century BC. Finding such a stater in Europe is very rare.

Among the grave goods, they found some pottery together with spears, fibulae, belt buckles, etc. Further study will tell us more about these kinds of burials, which strangely enough were almost void of human remains.

The origins of Podzemelj go back to prehistoric times but the city continued to exist into the Roman era as some inscriptions have confirmed. The town lies in southeastern Slovenia, close to the border with Croatia – definitely a region where one will not expect finding anything related to Alexander!

Tomb of Darius I reveals new inscription

Excavations in Persepolis and at the nearby tombs of Nasq-e Rustam started nearly two hundred years ago, and the sites have been explored in the decades that followed.

[Picture from The Archaeology News Network]

The latest discovery was made in the upper right corner of the relief façade decorating the Tomb of Darius I at Nasq-e Rustam. A tri-lingual inscription in Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian had until now remained hidden underneath a coat of dirt and lichen.

A more in-depth description of the site has been given in one of my earlier blogs, Achaemenid Tombs at Naqsh-e Rustam and Persepolis.

Of course, using the modern technology and a special crane, researchers were able to access the corner above the head of the figure on the far right. The text has not (yet) been disclosed but academics specialized in ancient Iranian language are very excited because it contains valuable information about the inner circle of the Achaemenid kings, their associates and advisers. It also transpires that this inscription adds new verbs to all three languages.

The archaeologists evidently hope to find more such inscriptions which can be added to what is known so far about the archives of Persepolis.

Alexander at Thermopylae

Nothing much is left of this once so highly strategic pass. All we can see today is a flat rather fertile plain gently sloping down from tall mountain walls to the sea at the distant horizon.

Hard to imagine that it was here that the historical Battle of Thermopylae took place in 480 BC between Leonidas of Sparta and King Xerxes of Persia. For two full days Leonidas, the leader of the Greek city-states, was able to pin down the Persians at this pass until he was betrayed by a local resident who guided the enemy troops behind the Greek lines – a tactic that was to be used repeatedly by Alexander during his eastern campaigns. When Leonidas realized that he was trapped, he dismissed the bulk of the Greek army and fought a last stand with his 300 Spartans.

This act of bravery can only have fired Alexander’s imagination, especially considering that for him this battle took place less than 150 years earlier. Meanwhile, other battles had been fought here like the one his father led on his way to Chaironeia two years before and in which Alexander took part.

Today there is nothing to remind us of Alexander’s (or Philip’s) passage at Thermopylae, only a memorial monument erected in honor of the Spartan King Leonidas. The centerpiece is a most splendid modern statue of Leonidas in classical style carrying the famous inscription “Come and take them”, i.e. the words addressed by the Greeks to Xerxes who demanded their surrender. On either side of Leonidas runs a relief depicting battle scenes ending on the right-hand side with a marble figure of Taigetos, representing the highest mountain in the Peloponnese, and on the left-hand side the personified Evrotas, a river of Laconia. This monument stands pretty much at the edge of the old coastline that follows the adjacent modern highway.

It is here at Thermopylae that Alexander, after the murder of his father, summoned the members of the Amphictyonic Council, basically responsible for managing the oracle of Delphi. With their pledges of support, he can rally northern and central Greece to his cause – a minor detail in his later campaigns but a very important one in these early days of his kingship.

Thermopylae, meaning literally Hot Gates, is named after the hot springs that bubble up near the historical pass. The hot springs are still working today and it is quite exciting to sample the hot water temperature as the soldiers of Leonidas and Alexander must have done. What a rewarding way to get in close touch with the past.

Punjab, Land of Five Rivers

One close look at the map will make you realize that Punjab is an enormous alluvial plain that counts far more than the five main rivers. Situated at the foot of the Himalayas, it covers a surface of over 50,000 square kilometers. Its watershed is fed by snow and glacial meltwater from the world’s highest peaks, like the Karakorum, the Hindu Kush, and the Himalayan Mountains.

The Achaemenids had only conquered the lands west of the Indus, meaning that once Alexander crossed this mighty river, he entered uncharted territory. Modern historians do not spend much time following the king’s march further east and his countless river crossings but instead focus on battlefields, sieges, and other ruthless fights. However, each and every crossing, including the numerous tributaries, is an enormous logistic enterprise. It makes you wonder how many of these rivers, streams, and waterways the Macedonians had to cross by any means available. That alone is a gigantic task!

After taking the Aornos Rock, Alexander headed for the Indus River, where Hephaistion had worked hard to build a pontoon bridge across the river as well as a fleet partly new and partly reassembling the elements which had been carried along. The crossing of the Indus took place at Ohind, modern Hund, in north-western Pakistan (see: Alexander crossing the Indus at Ohind).

Once his troops reached the opposite bank, Alexander headed for the capital Taxila at the junction of the major trade routes from Bactria, Kashmir, and the Ganges valley. This was the realm of Omphis, the son of King Taxiles, who had visited Alexander while he was still in Bactria and died before he arrived in India. Besides sending provisions to Hephaistion during the construction works, King Omphis welcomed Alexander with 200 silver talents, 3,000 oxen, 10,000 sheep, 30 elephants, and 700 Indian cavalry and 5.000 infantry.

The next river Alexander had to tackle was the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum), where the famous battle against King Porus took place (see: The Battle of the Hydaspes and the genius of Alexander), a masterpiece and a genius enterprise that was never surpassed.

As casually mentioned by Arrian, Alexander marched on through the populous region, taking some thirty-seven towns and many villages as the natives surrendered without much protest. Their lands were graciously handed over to King Porus.

The next obstacle was the Acesines River (modern Chenab) which was so broad and swift that Ptolemy found it necessary to mention it in his biography used by Arrian. It is hard to simply imagine a three kilometers wide river and how much one could see of the opposite bank. The Macedonians used boats to get across, but navigation among the rocks was a true challenge, and many were broken up, and the men were swept away by the current. The floats for the baggage and horses fared much better as they were far more shallow than the boats, but the trip was nevertheless one more logistic challenge.

The Hydraotes River (modern Ravi) was another major river on Alexander’s path, and as he marched through these lands, most Indian tribes surrendered without resistance. Those who refused were, of course, taken by force. Sangala was such an exception (see: The siege of Sangala). The tribes nearby the city had sought and found refuge inside its strong walls. Eventually, Sangala was taken by an assault in which up to 17,000 Indians were killed while over 70,000 were taken prisoner.

[Map from Wikimedia by Apuldram - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0]

The last of the five major rivers was the Hyphasis River (modern Beas). Here, the Macedonians bluntly refused to follow Alexander anywhere closer to the edge of the world despite his eloquent and fiery speech. This was a severe blow to the king’s ego and pride, but he issued the order to retreat after three days.

Obviously, Alexander withdrew in style, and after building twelve altars (see: Alexander erected twelve altars on the banks of the Hyphasis) to thank the gods for having led him so far as conqueror and leaving an impressive memorial to his own accomplishments, he turned around having to cross the Hyphasis, Hydraotes, and Acesines once again. He sailed down the Hydaspes to ultimately reach the Indus River.

Some scholars consider Alexander’s experience in Punjab as useless and a waste of time, but it is hard to believe that he would do anything without reason. He would not endanger the life of his Macedonians lightly, and he certainly would not have invested nine months of this life on a sole whim. Judging Alexander’s conduct with today’s eyes is impossible. Besides, we only have sparse historical documentation to support his decision-making.