The unequaled beauty of gems in antiquity

It seems like a flood of gems that have been flushing towards the Getty Museum just a few months ago (May 2019).

We find rings from antiquity with exquisitely carved gems in some museums and, unfortunately, they are often overlooked by the casual visitor who is more impressed by large statues and impressive reliefs.

Yet, this newly acquired group of seventeen such engraved gems constitutes an exceptional and extremely rare collection, the previous possession of a Roman art dealer. These truly unique gems, some of which are still set in their original rings, range from the Minoan, Archaic and Classical eras down to Etruscan and Roman times.

The acquisition includes some of the most famous gems like the portraits of Antinoüs, the lover of Emperor Hadrian, and Demosthenes, but also lesser-know work by exceptionally talented jewelers.

Antinoüs is carved on a large black chalcedony stone and is depicted wearing a cloak pinned in place by a fibula. He is presented as a hunter and carries a spear. His traits are rendered with such precision and delicacy that it leads many to say that this is the finest rendition of Antinoüs ever.

The portrait of Demosthenes, on the other hand, carries the name of its engraver, Dioskourides who is known for working at the court of Emperor Augustus. The cut of this gem is so deep that the portrait looks more like a high relief. Demosthenes is depicted wearing a mantle over one shoulder and his face shows the serious expression befitting his famous Philippics.

As to the other gems in the collection, they all show the exceptional skill of their creators. Especially noteworthy are the pictures of three swans on a Bronze Age seal from Crete (approx. 1600 BC) and that of a semi-divine Perseus with detailed naturalism.

Before being housed at the Getty Villa, the entire collection will be shown to the public as part of a special exhibition at the Getty Center in December 2019.

[Pictures from Archaeology News Network]

Theophrastus, philosopher and botanist

Theophrastus lived in Alexander’s days, but despite his elaborate work on the plants and foods he received from Asia, he is hardly mentioned in this context.

Theophrastus was born around 371 BC in Lesbos and was given the name of Tyrtamus. When he was 17 years old, he became a disciple of  Aristotle who changed his name into Theophrastus (spoken by God) because of his exceptional eloquent language. Together they traveled to Lesbos in 347 BC to study the animals and plants of the island.

When Aristotle left for Macedonia to teach the young prince Alexander, Theophrastus continued his botanical study. Yet, the relationship between Aristotle and Theophrastus remained very close, and we may wonder which part each of them played in analyzing and studying the many plant and seed specimens Alexander sent back from Asia.

It is known that Theophrastus maintained a botanical herbarium, something unusual for the time. The array of plants he studied came from Persia, Afghanistan, and the Indus Valley. He introduced the Greeks to the robust argun palms, bananas, citrons, cardoons (or artichoke thistle), mangos, jujubes (also called Chinese dates), pistachios, and tamarind. Pepper arrived in Athens at some time in the 4^th century BC, maybe carried along by Alexander’s troops. Newly imported plants were cinnamon, banyan (a fig typically from India), as well as frankincense and myrrh (the myrrh trees in Gedrosia were taller than anywhere else and Alexander’s mercenaries from Phoenicia readily collected it). Cotton was another novelty that appeared in the Greek world and some say that is was Theophrastus who brought cotton to this country, but his role in this matter is far from clear.

Upon the death of Aristotle in 322 BC, just one year after Alexander’s, Theophrastus inherited his mentor’s entire library, including his manuscripts. Drawing on Aristotle’s concepts and no doubt on his own experiences, he wrote two botany textbooks: the ten-volume Historia Plantarum (Inquiry into plants) and the eight-volume De Causis Plantarum (On the Causes of Plants) covering 550 species in all. Pliny the Elder based his Historia Naturae (Natural History) on Theophrastus' books, which remained primary references throughout the Middle Ages. Great men like Cicero and Seneca often leaned on Theophrastus’ knowledge.

According to Diogenes Laërtius, Theophrastus wrote 227 books, most of which are unfortunately now lost. Ptolemy II, the son of Ptolemy I Soter who had campaigned with Alexander, fully appreciated both Aristotle and Theophrastus, and he transferred their entire collection to Alexandria.

In his long life, Theophrastus worked as a lecturer at the Lyceum in Athens, enlarging and reorganizing the school over time. From the age of 49 until his death at 85, he taught a total of at least 2,000 pupils. He also founded a museum in Alexandria in memory of Aristotle.

[Picture of Theophrastus from NNDB]

Happy Birthday, dear Alexander!

Today, 2375 years ago, a young prince was born in the Royal Palace of Pella. He was the son of King Philip of Macedonia and Queen Olympias, and his name was Alexander meaning “protector of mankind” (see: He too is Alexander).

In his short life, he conquered most of the then known world although his kingship lasted only for twelve years. Yet each of his years equals a lifetime for any other mortal. He certainly lived his life to the fullest.

Alexander was a hero while he was still alive, and after his death, his person was shrouded in mystery, which kept on growing till today. Many kings, emperors, and other rulers liked to emulate Alexander in the hope to obtain eternal life like him – yet without success.

Nowadays, Alexander is often used for marketing purposes as is the case for the Belgian chocolatier Leonidas, who has created this delicious “praline.”

To your eternal glory, dear Alexander!

Eye cream from antiquity

It is not difficult to imagine that even in antiquity, soldiers who traversed large stretches of dry lands or deserts would suffer from xerophthalmia, i.e. eye-dryness. Yet, it is far more difficult to accept that they knew how to treat their sore eyes.

Sifting through the grave gifts in ancient tombs can obviously be very rewarding but finding a jar that once contained this eye balsam is quite surprising.

It happened during recent excavations works in Aizanoi, in western Turkey. Here, archaeologists unearthed several tombs from the 2^nd and 1^st century BC and among the grave goods, they found a “lykion” which is a typical jar made to contain the precious cream.

The salve was made using a plant that was common in Lycia until the end of the 18^th century. A similar plant is also known in India. This makes me wonder whether Alexander could have taken this remedy with him to India or if it has been imported to Asia Minor by his Macedonians on their way back home.

According to ancient sources, Romans used this eye cream while marching through Egypt.

[Picture from Archaeology News Network. Credit: AA]

Horses buried upright in Thracian tomb

Thracian horses were famous throughout antiquity and Homer, who probably lived in the 8^th century BC, already mentions that Rhesos, the mythical king of Thracia possessed massive horses, “whiter than snow”. That must have been quite a sight for sore eyes!

Tragedians like Sophocles and Euripides label the Thracians as loving their horses, while Hesiod refers to the horse-breeding qualities of the Thracians. It is not surprising to find the horse portrayed on their coins and on those of the Greek colonies in Thracia.

Alexander, and his father before him, were well-aware of this high-quality breed. We will remember the incident when in 339 BC Philip returned home after capturing the Athenian corn ships. On his way, he thought it would be a good idea to secure his eastern front and subdue the ruling Scythians. Beside the slaves, he got hold of some twenty thousand thoroughbred horses. But his success did not last long as the Triballi, an independent Thracian tribe, attacked and stole the precious horses from the king before he could reach Macedonia. (see: Philip’s campaigns east (342 BC) and the Fourth Sacred War (339 BC)).

It is therefore not surprising to find horses buried next to their wealthy owners and leaders (see: Thracian Tombs at Doxipara, Greece) or depicted on the walls of their burial chamber (see: Valley of the Thracian Kings, Bulgaria).

Today wild horses still roam in Thracia which now extends over most of Bulgaria, as well as the eastern corner of Greece and the western part of Turkey.

Recent excavations in Svestari in north-east Bulgaria have exposed the remains of a Thracian carriage pulled by two horses that apparently were buried standing upright. Scholars believe that the chariot was led over a ramp into the pit. The horses wore their festive trimmings and elaborate harnesses.

[Picture from Sofia News Agency]

A couple of years ago, a similar chariot was found complete with a seat together with two horses in the village of Borissvovo, dating from the Roman era. In this case, the chariot was supported by stones to keep it in position, giving the archaeologists a unique opportunity to study how the vehicle was put together.

The extent of Philippopolis

Latest archaeological works have revealed that in the 4th century BC and in early Hellenistic times, Philippopolis was much larger than assumed initially.

[Picture from Archaeology in Bulgaria]

Photo: TV grabs from the Bulgarian National Television

The oldest hills are Nebet Tepe, Dzhambaz Tepe, and Taksim Tepe, where traces of prehistoric times have been found. As the settlement grew, it spread out over the seven hills we know today, called “tepeta” – from “tepe”, the Turkish word for hill that was used by the Ottomans.

Philip’s Philippopolis occupied those initial three hills and until the 1^st century AD, the Romans also used the appropriate name of Trimontium. After this date, the city expanded into the surrounding plains where six luxury residential quarters were uncovered. During ongoing excavations, numerous public buildings like a temple were unearthed, as well as an inn with a tavern, and a brothel.

The Roman Eastern Gate from the 2^nd century AD has also been exposed. It was, in fact, a marble triumphal arch meant to honor Emperor Hadrian, who – as so often - visited the city.

[Picture from Archaeology in Bulgaria]

Photo: TV grabs from the Bulgarian National Television

Entering Philippopolis through this Gate, one would walk through one of the town’s most beautiful streets which were 13 meters wide, and still carry the deep ruts left by the heavy traffic of carts moving goods in and out of the city. As usual, the street is lined with a colonnade running along the edge of the sidewalks on either side.

At Nebet Tepe, the remains of Hellenistic and Roman fortresses have been found. The entrance gate known as Hisar Kapiya built under Trajan and Marcus Aurelius is the best preserved.

As mentioned in earlier blogs (see: Philip’s Macedonia included also today’s Bulgaria and Plans enough to dig out Philippopolis) most of Philip’s proud city is still hidden underneath modern Plovdiv. Among the hidden treasures is a huge Stadium that was 180 meters long and could seat as many as 30,000 spectators. It appears that Septimius Severus organized contests at Philippopolis that were not unlike those held by the Greeks in their Olympic Games.

Cyrene and other Libyan sites defaced and left for grabs

The great city of Cyrene that rose from its ashes in the last one hundred years or so is sadly being defaced by graffiti. It is left at the mercy of vandals and looters. The local population, for whatever reason, confiscates the land illegally, and only Zeus may know what will become of this precious gem on the coast of North Africa.

Cyrene is on the UNESCO World Heritage list with the archaeological sites of Leptis Magna, Sabratha, and Ghadames (pre-Saharian city), all tagged as “in danger.” Other smaller but no less precious sites have been plundered and looted at the same rate or maybe more because they are not so well known or documented. Cities belonging to the Cyrenaica, like Ptolemais and Apollonia, and the rich Roman villas strung along the western seaside, roughly between Leptis Magna and Sabratha, are easy targets.

Since the fall of Muammar Gaddafi in 2011, the Department of Antiquities has been virtually powerless and has no means to stop vandalism or theft. Many artifacts have been smuggled outside the country, and it seems to be everyone’s guess which objects are gone and who has acquired them.

The people of Libya, unfortunately, do not appreciate their cultural heritage, and obviously, they have other priorities.

What is the use of having laws against looting and illegal operations if there is no central power to enforce and apply these laws, I wonder. With the best intentions, a “world heritage” in this context is meaningless.

Fascinating revelations of the palimpsests

It is a fact that since antiquity papyri and more often parchment documents were reused. The process was rather simple: the original writing was erased or “obscured” and the new text was written over and across the old one, i.e., horizontally over the vertical obliterated initial lines. This practice was commonly applied until the Middle-Ages.

In an earlier blog, I mentioned the 65 Basel papyri among which an original work of the Greek physician Galen was discovered (see: The Greek physician Galen is still making headlines). Another palimpsest that constitutes the most complete surviving copy of an original book by Galen was found at the St Catherine Monastery on the Sinai Peninsula. It was written in Syriac and dated from the 6^th century but was hidden underneath a text from the 11^th century (see: Hello? Dr Galen?)

Yet, the St Catherine Monastery has many more treasures and this time we are talking about 74 palimpsests containing unknown classical Greek mythological and medical works.

It sounds almost like magic to discover ancient classical texts through a translation in Syriac, religious writings in languages that have disappeared, or even detailed illustrations of plants, monuments, and people. All in all, the Sinai palimpsests count nearly seven thousand pages, penned down in ten different languages hidden under writings from the 5^th to the 12^th century! The collection reveals manuscripts in Ethiopic and Latin, which is not surprising given the central role played by St Catherine’s Monastery in the Christian world up to the Middle Ages.

Example: (Overtext) Gospels in Arabic translation, late 8th century. 

The oldest surviving copy of the Gospels in Arabic translation. 

Scanned: (Undertext revealed through spectral imaging) Hippocrates, 

De morbis popularibus (Epidemiae), 6th century. 

The oldest surviving copy of this ancient scientific text.

Among these documents, the earliest surviving copies of different Hippocratic medical treatises have been discovered, as well as a hitherto unknown poem from ancient Greece mentioning Zeus, Hades, Hera, Hermes, and Persephone.

Obviously, we need the modern technology of spectral imaging process to illuminate the manuscript with different wavelengths, ranging from ultraviolet to infrared. Under the right circumstances, a new image appears that is readable from underneath the scanned content.

It must be terribly exciting to work on such a project and discover new texts or older versions of ancient documents that have reached us. Imagine lying hands on antique illustrations of medicinal herbs, or see human faces and figures re-appear through the mist of time! Nothing short of a miracle, indeed.

[Both pictures are from the UCLA Library News]