Astrology and Astronomy, one and the same in antiquity

The subtitle could be: What a coin could tell us, for this is about a Greek coin minted around 120 BC showing King Antiochus VIII of Syria on one side but on the reverse we find the unusual picture of Zeus with a crescent of the moon above his head while his right arm is reaching out to a star (maybe the planet Jupiter?) hovering above the palm of his hand. It is a one-of-a-kind iconography, meaning that is was worth investigating further.

Antiochus VIII was king of the Seleucid Empire, which in his days had its capital in Antioch-on-the-Orontes at the border of modern Turkey and Syria. His empire was threatened by the expansionism of the Parthians in the east and that of the Romans in the west. He started his kingship at the side of his mother, Cleopatra Thea, a very domineering woman who had gone so far as to kill her oldest son so Antiochus could be the ruler of her choice. This did not reassure Antiochus who decided to put his mother to death in 121 BC.

[Picture from Unreported Heritage News]

The abovementioned coin is indeed out of common; maybe there is a meaning beyond the simple picture of Zeus. Dr Robert Weir, a classic professor with an interest in astronomy and ancient coins started to make some calculations to see what the sky of Antioch-on-the-Orontes would have looked like in Antiochus’ days. He found that on January 17, 121 BC, the planet Jupiter was blocked out by the moon, a phenomenon that today is called an “occultation”. When this occultation happened, the moon was in the constellation of Cancer, a very significant constellation. This was explained as a sign that a great king was coming, or would be born in Syria since the Cancer constellation governs that part of the world according to the ancient astrologers. 

Yet, there was more happening in the night sky at that time. Dr Weir discovered that another occultation of Jupiter happened within the year and just one week after the first one, there also was an occultation of Venus, considered to be a very good omen too. This was especially well received by King Antiochus ruling over his ever shrinking Seleucid empire barely delivered from his murderous mother.

But appearances are deceptive and the following years did not favour the king. His half-brother and cousin, Antiochus IX, claimed the throne and in the end what was left of the once proud Seleucid Kingdom was split between the two of them. Over the next few years several bad luck eclipses of Mars and Saturn lit the night skies. The final blow came in 114 BC, shortly before the coin was stopped being minted: the Moon eclipsed Mars and Saturn at the very same time. Such an eclipse happens only once in 2,000 years and is recorded as being about the worst omen one can get.

The death of Antiochus VIII was all but glorious; he was killed by one of his ministers in 96 BC. The Seleucid Empire was doomed. In 64 BC Pompey conquered Syria that became part of the Roman Empire.

The Oxus Treasure, pieces Alexander must have known

There is still a lot of guesswork about what Alexander knew about the world in general and the Persian Empire in particular. To me, this is one of the most fascinating subjects and I keep trying to find answers. During my recent visit to the British Museum, I concentrated more closely on the so-called Oxus Treasure, the most important surviving collection of Achaemenid artifacts.

Evidently these objects were created when the Persian Empire was at its peak and roughly covered the same territory as Alexander would conquer shortly afterwards.

The Oxus Treasure probably belonged to a temple and was gathered over a longer period of time. It contains all sorts of objects like gold and silver vessels, a rich collection of coins, figurines, a model chariot, a gold scabbard, finger rings as well as miscellaneous personal objects – all found on the banks of the River Oxus, modern Amu Darya, the natural border between Afghanistan and Tajikistan with Uzbekistan. It is thought that the precious pieces were found at the site of Takht-i Kuwad, a major ferry point across the river in modern Tajikistan.

The story of this treasure seems to emerge from the Tales of 1001 Nights. It goes back to 1880 when a British officer in Afghanistan rescued a party of merchants that had been captured by bandits who took possession of their rich collection of gold and silverware. The officer helped them to recover their precious cargo and even purchased a gold bracelet from these merchants, but other pieces travelled all the way to India to surface at the bazaars of Rawalpindi. The Archaeological Survey of India and the curator of the local museum also acquired some of these objects, which eventually made their way to the British Museum.

Let’s have a closer look at some of these artifacts, which mainly belong to the 5^th-4^th century BC.

For a start, there is this slender cast silver statuette represented in a rather static pose closely related to early classical Greek statues. The man is wearing a typical Persian hat, but his naked body may indeed indicate a Greek influence. This is not surprising considering that the Persians invaded and occupied Greece under Darius I in 490 BC and again under Xerxes in 480 and in 479 BC. 

Next to this statuette stands another one made of cast silver as well. This one, in turn, is dressed and is holding either a bundle of sacred rods or a flower. It may represent a king as there is much likeness with the stone reliefs found at Persepolis.

More true to life are two heads made of beaten gold, one much larger than the other but both with lovely well-combed hair. The larger head shows, in fact, a beardless youth with holes in his ears and was probably wearing earrings. It may be part of a larger statue, perhaps made of wood that has disintegrated over the centuries.

Typical Achaemenid is the gold jug with a handle ending in a lion head at them rim. It has raised the possibility that the Oxus Treasure may not have been a temple dedication but should rather be considered as a source of currency. It was not an uncommon practice in antiquity to exchange goods against silver or gold objects which were simply valued according to their weight.

Also very recognizable and typical for the Achaemenid period are the different gold bracelets and armlets, especially those with the griffon heads. Often, the eyes or other spaces were inlaid with precious stones. Many examples of such armlets have been reproduced on the walls of Persepolis, and according to Xenophon, they were among the most precious gifts exchanged at the Persian court. 

Noticeable are the coiled bracelets among other, more elaborate examples. There is more jewellery, of course, but also an entire collection of gold knobs or buttons.

Another common item is the collection of bowls, particularly the gold one with embossed lions walking on their hind legs and separated by drop motives.

Rather exceptional is the gold ceremonial scabbard for the short Persian sword known as akinakes, also represented in the reliefs at Persepolis. Only the thin gold layer that once covered the wood or leather support has survived, including its sublime scenes of a lion hunt. It also shows horsemen who curiously wear trousers in Persian fashion but hats that remind us of the Assyrians (although Assyrian art had disappeared for decades at the time this scabbard was made).

A true gem and eye-catcher is the tiny gold chariot pulled by four horses or ponies. Inside the chariot are two figures in Median dress, one seated on a little bench while the other is holding the reins. It is a very delicate and intrinsic piece of craftsmanship. Strangely enough, the front of the chariot shows the Egyptian protective god Bes. How civilizations intermingle!

A gold vessel in the shape of a fish also catches my attention because of its elaborately carved scales. It probably was used to hold expensive oils. The loop on the side may have been used to hang it or served to attach a stopper now lost. It seems that the fish could be a carp.

Last but not least, there is an entire series of about fifty gold plaques engraved with human figures in different positions and different dresses. They vary in size from less than 3 cm to nearly 20 cm and may have served as votive objects left in a temple or shrine. On one of the largest plaques, we recognize a Mede who seems to be involved in a religious ritual.

There are many more objects here at the British Museum from the Achaemenid period, all kinds of vessels and decorations, Alexander must have found at any of the Persian palaces, from Susa to Persepolis to Pasargadae. I wonder how he would have reacted to this kind of art and to this wealth.

[Click here to watch more pictures from the BM]

Another Macedonian tomb open to the public in Pella

Another Macedonian tomb is being revealed, this time in ancient Pella. Sadly, it opens to the public only until November 2015. Macedonia, as I found out over the decades, is extremely rich in tombs and very well-preserved ones for that matter. Yet since the financial crisis started in 2011, most of them are closed to the public, so maybe you should rush out to see at least this new one while it is accessible?

[Picture from Archaeology News Network]

This new tomb definitely stands out as it is the largest rock-cut tomb in all of Greece and has as many as eight chambers, whereas usually there are only one or two chambers. It has been determined that this was a family tomb used without interruption from the 4^th century BC till the second century BC.

It seems to be a very moving place to visit, as the lighting inside gives the visitor the impression that he is descending into Hades. The entrance leads into a central rectangular chamber surrounded by openings in the walls where the dead could be laid to rest. These walls are plastered and painted in bands of black, blue, red, and white, whereas the ceiling is white.

It is not surprising that this tomb has been looted several times in the past, but it is not entirely stripped. Archaeologists recovered, for instance, three inscribed stelae, several clay vessels and figures, jewelry, as well as bits of a gold-plated wreath; copper coins, the usual fare of the dead to the underworld, were also found.

Archaeologists even deciphered the name of “Antigone, daughter of Aeneas” on a relief in the hallway. The additive ΗΡΩΙΣΣΗ after the name of the deceased indicates that we are dealing with a hero, a very common qualification in Hellenistic times. The relief shows Antigone with her maid holding a jewelry box and has been dated to the first quarter of the third century BC, although the inscription seems to have been added at a later date, probably in the first half of the 2^nd century BC.

More information about the occupants has been discovered as in the western wall, where an altar stone reveals the name of Nikostratos from Boeotia, daughter of Pythonos. This means that people from other regions had settled in Pella. The top of another marble stele carries the name of Kleonikis, daughter of Nikomachou. Some of the small figures that were unearthed here seem to indicate that one or more children were buried here. It can be concluded that the tomb belonged to a wealthy family, although the bone remains are too scant and in too bad a state of conservation to confirm their relationship.

Towards the end of the third century BC, Macedonia was economically in decline, a tendency that is clearly reflected in this tomb.

Cleopatra VII and her children, the last of the Ptolemies

Cleopatra was not only the last queen to rule over Egypt before the country fell into Roman hands; she also was the last of the Ptolemaic Dynasty founded by Ptolemy I, a prominent general in the army of Alexander the Great.

After Alexander died in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his generals after a long feud and endless wars that lasted for forty years. From the onset, Ptolemy had his eyes set on Egypt, and apparently, none of his competitors contested his territory. The Ptolemies ruled Egypt for about three hundred years, putting Alexandria as its glorious new capital on the world map.

 

In 53 BC, the 17-year-old Cleopatra VII co-reigned with her brothers Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator and Ptolemy XIV, whom she married following the Egyptian tradition and desperately tried to keep Egypt out of Roman grip. It is known that Cleopatra was ambitious, and she arranged for her brothers to be eliminated to become the sole ruler.

So, Cleopatra significantly sought his support when Julius Cesar arrived in Alexandria in 48 BC. They became lovers, and she bore him a son, Caesarion, in 47 BC. Three years later, she left for Rome with her son, but Caesar was murdered by a group of Roman senators within a year. Rome was divided by Octavian and Marc Antony supporters, and since the latter was more popular, Cleopatra concentrated on gaining Marc Antony’s favors. This chagrined the Romans, especially when Marc Antony gave away parts of his empire to Cleopatra in 34 BC. 

Meanwhile, they became lovers, and Cleopatra gave birth to twins, a boy, and a girl, Alexander and Cleopatra, in 40 BC. Their names were changed to Alexander Helios (Sun) and Cleopatra Selene (Moon) three years later when the queen joined Marc Antony in Antioch (modern Turkey). This name-giving happened on the day of an eclipse. This may have led to choosing of a mythological name for the twins. Another son was born in 36 BC and received the name Ptolemy Philadelphus.

Meanwhile, Octavian declared war on this foreign queen in Rome, and he won the Battle of Actium over Marc Antony. A year later, in 30 BC, Octavian landed in Alexandria to face Marc Antony personally, but rather than being killed by his adversary Marc Antony committed suicide. With Cleopatra at his mercy, Octavian refused negotiation of any kind, and Cleopatra, feeling that there was no way out, killed herself – allegedly using poisonous snakes. With her death, the Ptolemaic Dynasty ended.

Caesarion, or Ptolemy Caesar, was then 17 years of age, and he was killed by Octavian only ten days after his own mother. Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire ruled by Octavian, who promoted himself to Emperor Augustus. 

The three children of Cleopatra and Marc Antony were spared by Octavian and taken to Rome instead. The twins were 10 years old, and the little brother was four by then. Their care was entrusted to Octavia, Octavian’s sister, who was, ironically, the widow of Marc Antony. A few years later, the boys disappeared from history, but the girl, Cleopatra Selene, married King Juba II of Mauretania. As far as we know, she had at least one son whom she called Ptolemy Philadelphus, probably in memory of her little brother. It seems she ruled as an equal with her husband since both their images were minted on the local coins.

Fate has added a little twist of its own. Recently an Italian Egyptologist has dusted off a statue from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo portraying Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene as small children. The sculpture was discovered in 1918 near the temple of Dendera on the banks of the Nile. It was stored away in the museum. The ten-meter-high statue shows two naked children of identical size, one male and one female, standing within the coils of two snakes. They are holding each other with one arm around the shoulder of the other while they are grasping the snake with their other hand. They have identified thanks to the sun disc around the boy's head and the lunar disc and crescent held by the girl. We also find the Horus eye on each disc, a typical symbol in Egyptian art. The faces are not very clear, but the boy appears with curly hair and a braid on the right side of his head, as was customary. The girl’s hair is cut according to the fashion of the Ptolemaic dynasty and of Cleopatra in particular. 

It is nice to see that at least a picture of these poor children has survived for 2,100 years. What history they could have written!

[Picture of Ceasarion is from Wikipedia]

[Picture of Cleopatra and Ceasarion at de Temple of Dendera is from Wikipedia] 

[Picture of Cleopatra's twins is from Discovery News]

Cappadocia Guide by Turgay Tuna and Bülent Demirdurak

There are countless books and picture books about Cappadocia, but I found it difficult to get a practical or handy guide with clear overviews. This Cappadocia Guide by Turgay Tuna and Bülent Demirdurak (ISBN 978-6055488055), however, is exactly what I was looking for.

The book is starting with a distinctive topography of Cappadocia, without which the very site, now part of the UNESCO World Heritage, would not exist. Its role in history as “country of the beautiful horses” is then summarized and special attention is given to the monastic life in those protected valleys and to the many churches that were cut out the soft tuff walls.

The main part of this guide then takes the reader through the successive regions:

From Göreme to Avanos, with the Fairy Chimneys, the churches of Göreme, the underground cities, the Cappadocia “citadels” and caravanserais;

From Ürgüp (one of Cappadocia’s oldest settlements) to Soğanlı, including the antique city of Sobessos;

From Aksaray to Ihlara with Güzelyurt, the cradle of monastic life, and the magnificent canyon of the Ihlara Valley;

From Nevşehir (actually located at the very center of Cappadocia) to Hacibektaş.

The guide concludes with some extra information about Cappadocia’s rich fauna and flora, including useful details about the delicious Cappadocia wine.

Whether you visit the site on your own or on a guided tour, this book definitely helps to mentally place the huge amount of fresco’s from the many churches in their rightful context. It may not show on the picture but the guide is available in English.

The Cube of Zoroaster or the Ka’bah-i Zardusht at Naqsh-i Rustam

The Cube of Zoroaster, or the Ka’bah-i Zardusht or the Jail of Solomon, whatever its name is and whatever its function was, this building remains unique and enigmatic.

The fact is that we are looking at a tower-like construction set in front of the Royal Achaemenid Tombs and the victory reliefs of the Sassanid Kings at Naqsh-i Rustam near Persepolis. So far, it has been determined that it dates from the 5^th century BC (it is generally believed that it was built either under Darius the Great or Artaxerxes II) and is not a Zoroastrian shrine. A similar tower, but in a worse state of conservation, can be found at nearby Pasargadae and is being referred to as the Zendan-i Suleiman, translating to the Jail of Solomon. Not that Solomon ever was here, but the name may arise from a Persian tactic when the Arabs were invading the country in order to protect the Tomb of Cyrus the Great (calling it the tomb of Solomon’s Mother) and the tower (calling it the Jail of Solomon).

The square tower constructed with white limestone blocks is 12.5 meters high, and the sides are 7.25 meters wide, making it look rather sturdy. It stands on a 3-stepped plinth of 1.5 meters. A staircase of 30 steps leads to the stone entrance door, 1.9 meters high. The inside chamber of 3.7x3.7 meters is 5.7 meters high and has no windows, as may appear at first glance on the outside walls; they are in fact blind windows. The roof has disappeared, but it was made of four slabs of stone set as a pyramid on top of the tower.

The tower walls carry inscriptions related to events of the reign of the Sassanid King Shapur I (241-272 AD). It is, as so often, a trilingual inscription in Sassanid and Parthian dialects of central Persia and in ancient Greek, referring to the war with Rome when Shapur I defeated Emperor Valerian in 260 AD. There is also a Sassanid inscription suggesting that the structure was used as a fire altar or housed an eternal flame in memory of the nearby kings, but the lack of cross-ventilation in the tower kills this theory. Another suggestion is that it served as a safe place to keep the royal flags and other memorabilia, but how safe is such a building? Other experts believe that this monument was the place where a complete copy of the Avesta (the sacred texts of the Zoroastrians) was kept, written on 12,000 sheets of parchment. More recently, an Iranian archaeologist has described the monument as a unique calendar and astronomical observatory, but that seems rather far-fetched.

Separately, there is an inscription of 19 lines in Middle Persian believed to be written by the highly influential high-priest Kartir in the third century AD, commenting on the first two texts and describing Shapur I’s victories.

The tower at Naqsh-i Rustam was surrounded by a wall from Sassanid times, and it probably stood in a garden laid out at the foot of the nearby tomb reliefs.

Although both towers originate in Achaemenid times, they have undergone repeated modifications and improvements by the Sassanids. Still, it remains a very enigmatic construction that raises more questions than it provides answers. I also wonder what they must have looked like when Alexander was there; no ancient writer bothers to mention it.

The dream of the Queen of Palmyra

We can't stress enough how vital Palmyra's site and location were in antiquity, reaching its absolute heydays under Queen Zenobia in the second half of the 3^rd century AD.

Luckily, I am not the only one to be in awe at this grandeur that has now been destroyed (see: The glorious days of Palmyra). I recently came across this great article published in the Mediterraneo Antiguo under the title Palmyra: The Dream of the Queen of the Desert. Unfortunately, the attached PDF report is in Spanish, but that should not be a problem for those interested. Note the reverence to the great archaeologist Khaled el-Asaad at the end.

Thank you, Mario Villanueva Agudo, for sharing this with the world.

The Temple of Zeus in Agrigento in all its glory

When visiting a temple, it is never easy to imagine how it once looked with all the columns and walls intact and all the painted friezes and reliefs. That’s why these short 3D reconstructions come in so handy.

The Temple of Zeus in Agrigento (ancient Akragas) is the largest ever built in Italy – once Magna Graecia – and one of the largest in antiquity after the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus and the Temple of Apollo in Didyma (see: The Valleys of the Temples at Akragas). 

It was built in 480 BC to celebrate the Battle of Himera when the Greek colonists beat the Carthaginians once and for all.

The most remarkable feature of this temple is without doubt the huge Telamone figures (male caryatides) that stood in between the colossal columns of which only a rubble of drums has survived since most remains have been re-used for other constructions like the western pier of nearby Porto Empedocle in the 17^th century.

Thanks to the efforts of a local architect we now have images of what the Temple of Zeus looked like in the fifth century BC, outside and inside. The composition is based on the description left by Diodorus and on studies made by great archaeologists like Pirro Marconi.

Thracian treasures from Bulgaria

Information about archaeological finds in Bulgaria filters through only piecemeal, and it is hard to stay up-to-date. Not many details are provided either, but at least there is some progress.

 

[2400-year-old Ancient Thracian labrys from the residence of the Odrysian rulers. 

Photo by National History Museum ]

The news is that some massive ancient stone anchors have been found in the Black Sea near Sozopol, suggesting by their shape that they were used by Mycenaean, Phoenician, or Carian ships during the 15th-12th centuries BC, i.e. much earlier than generally accepted. Also in the Sozopol area, a temple dedicated to Demeter and her daughter Persephone has been located. It is near a monastery complex from the 14^th century known as St. Apostles and 20,000 Martyrs. In the same city, the long-sought East Gate of Apollonia Pontica has finally been found. Scientists hope eventually to recover the entire fortification system of the ancient city.

In Odrysia, one of the most powerful Thracian settlements in the fertile plain of the Hebrus River, excavations have revealed the residence of the rulers evidencing the sacking by King Philip II of Macedonia. A 13-meter wall has been preserved to a height of two meters.

Near the town of Opaka in north-eastern Bulgaria, a Thracian tomb has been discovered and seems to be one of the latest burials in ancient Thracia. Among the treasures, archaeologists have found six gold leaves that once were part of a golden wreath, as well as other gold and bronze decorations, and some glass and bronze vessels.

And in the Bulgarian capital city of Sofia, new sections of the Roman Decumanus have been exposed as well as a unique mosaic floor of 30m2 together with a stylized laurel wreath from the 4^th century AD. The excavations are ongoing and go hand in hand with the construction of Sofia’s subway.

Alexander’s Prison?

Walking through the narrow streets of Yazd (Iran), I was surprised to find a signpost pointing towards Alexander’s Prison. What does it mean? Alexander never was in Yazd as far as I know, but he may, of course, have sent one of his generals here with explicit orders; this would make the connection with Alexander plausible – but still.

The formal explanation I received from the local guide is that during the reign of Alexander, a number of Persian nobles resisting his domination started a revolt in Rhagae, near modern Tehran. Alexander had them arrested, and on his way to Yazd, he imprisoned them in this fortress with a deep well in its courtyard.

Who knows what really happened, but it is a strange story since Alexander marched from Persepolis past Isfahan to Ecbatana, and from there via Qazvin to Raghae. Yazd is, however, located some 300 km east of his route Persepolis-Isfahan, which contradicts the local story that he was on his way from Raghae (Tehran) to Yazd in the south. In any case, the so-called Prison of Alexander in Yazd is still standing and has been converted into a school.

The Lonely Planet relates a story similar to that of my guide but mentions that it might have emerged from a poem by Hafez, who, together with Saadi, is one of the greatest poets Iran has ever known. Today, Hafez is still the most popular poet in Iran, and everyone can sing or recite one of his poems.

Whatever truth is hidden behind this tale, I never heard of this prison in Yazd or of its connection with Alexander, but then the same story or fable is told about Balkh in Afghanistan, whose origin would also be a prison established by Alexander. One thing is certain: the King of Asia is still very much alive in those parts of the world. There are many other examples like the one about the Alexander Fort at Nurata, the ancient city of Nur, which he founded in 327 BC. Uzbek sources relate that Alexander instructed one of his generals, a certain Farhangi-Sarhang, to build a fort that even he could not take, and he was successful at that! (see: Sogdian Rocks and Alexander’s Fort near Nurata). Another of those legends is about the Alexander River (Iskander Darya) that flows out of an Alexander Lake (Iskander Kül), also in Uzbekistan. It is believed that he built a golden dam to create the lake and that gold particles can still be panned further downstream. Another story tells how Alexander and his trusted horse Bucephalus rise from this lake every full moon to cross the sky (see: March to Maracanda).

These are all fascinating anecdotes that are being told over and over, keeping the name and the memory of Alexander the Great alive.