No saddles and no stirrups for Alexander’s cavalry

Saddles and stirrups did not exist in Alexander’s days. He and his cavalry forces rode their horses bareback, which required considerable communication with the horse and a great sense of balance. It is extremely uncomfortable for both the horse and the rider, and after a while, it also becomes tiring for both. Using a cloth or animal skin to sit on provides some relief – but still. 

Alexander and his highly skilled cavalry could maneuver and fight using the technique called “the knee grip”. It meant they would grip the horse’s sides with their knees and in doing so they applied a balanced amount of pressure to stay on the horse and to guide it. 

I always marveled at how the Macedonian cavalry managed to maneuver toward and among the enemy lines, throwing their spears and hacking their kopis down on the attackers without falling off. Some sources establish that they used shorter, more maneuverable horses better suited for battle without stirrups. Yet others have Alexander and his generals ride noble horse breeds.

The first saddles are thought to have come from Central Asia. The oldest specimen so far has been discovered in a woman’s grave at Yanghai in the northwest of the Turpan Basin in China. These people may have had close contact with the nomadic Scythians, who introduced them to the saddle. 

The specimen from the grave is made of leather and thanks to radiocarbon, it can be dated to between 724 and 396 BC. This most recent date is only forty years before Alexander was born. It makes me wonder what the picture would have been if the West had been in touch with China at that time! 

[Picture from Live Science, credit Patrick Wertmann] 

The woman in the Yanghai grave wore a coat made of hides, woolen pants, and short leather boots. The saddle was made of two cowhide cushions stuffed with deer and camel hair and straw. It was placed on her buttocks as if she were sitting on it. Analyses confirm that such a saddle would have efficiently held the rider in a firm position even without stirrups, which were invented in China as well and reached Europe around the 2nd century BC. The Romans in the 1st century AD commonly used saddles that were highly effective, despite their lack of stirrups. 

Saddles are said to require a girth, i.e., a strap of hide that was tied around the horse’s barrel. This advantage was quickly picked up by the steppe people of Central Asia. The Mongol tribes carried this knowledge to Europe. The Byzantine emperors were the first to mention the saddle stirrups in 580 AD. 

This evolution led to our modern use of saddles with stirrups that provide safe seating for the cavalry on the battlefield and on hunting parties. 

It makes one wonder if and how the saddle and stirrups would have affected Alexander’s battle techniques and tactics …

Another gold bust, this time from Switzerland

Some time ago, I wrote about a gold bust of Septimius Severus discovered in Plotinopolis, some 20 km north of Thracian Greece (see: A solid gold bust of Septimius Severus). 

I thought the find was pretty unique, but the Getty Villa just opened a special exhibition around a nearly life-size gold bust of Marcus Aurelius (see: the gold emperor of Aventicum published online in 2023). 

The bust is not made of solid gold like Septimius Severus’ but is hammered from a single sheet of gold. The gold bust was retrieved from an ancient sewage pipe in 1939. It was probably hidden there during a Germanic invasion in the 3^rd century AD. 

Interestingly, the discovery was made at Aventicum, modern Avenches, in Switzerland. The Romans occupied Switzerland as they expanded their empire over the Alps. Julius Cesar defeated the local Helvetii tribe in 58 BC, and soon their land became a Roman Province. 

Aventicum, located between Lausanne and Berne, was built on the site of this Celtic settlement and prospered during the first three centuries AD. In its heyday, it counted as many as 20,000 people, who became Roman citizens assimilating Roman culture. 

The treasures of ancient Aventicum are kept in the Avenches Roman Museum, occupying a medieval tower from the 12^th century near the amphitheater. 

This amphitheater from the early 2^nd century AD could seat 16,000 spectators. It was partially built of stone, i.e., the walls, stairs, and central entrance, but the seating area was made of wood. When it fell into disuse in the 4^th century, the building served as a stone quarry. 

The Roman vestiges counted more imposing monuments, including a theater, a temple where the bust was found, and the Thermal Baths of the Forum. Another striking feature is the Tornallaz, the only tower remaining from the initial 73 of the Roman city walls. This wall was 5.5 kilometers long and counted four gates. 

The gold bust of Marcus Aurelius was found under a temple situated at the center of a large courtyard framed with a Stoa on all sides. According to the available inscriptions, the temple was dedicated to Celtic gods as well as the ruling Roman emperor! 

The museum holds an impressive collection of artifacts such as mosaics and friezes, but also portrait sculptures recovered from the sanctuaries and the public monuments. 

A selection of artifacts, including the gold bust of Marcus Aurelius, is presently exhibited at the Getty Villa in Malibu, California till January 29, 2024. 

[Both pictures are taken from the Getty Villa exhibition link]

The beauty of ancient glassware

I always loved Roman glassware. It is such a fragile material and it is amazing to see such a variety of shapes and models on display in so many museums. 

Glass was first produced around 1600 BC in Egypt and Mesopotamia. To that effect, sand was mixed with salt, preferably natron as found in dry lake beds in Egypt. This mixture in the right proportions was heated in a kiln until it turned into glass. 

These rough glass chunks were acquired by craftsmen who melted them down and pressed them into molds, letting them cool off and harden to obtain the desired object. 

One of the earliest finds of glass ingots is known from the shipwreck of Uluburun. This ship went down in a storm in 1350 BC, i.e., shortly after 1600 BC when glass was first made. It yielded a precious cargo of all kinds including glass ingots colored with copper and cobalt (see: The flooded remains of Kekova Island and Uluburun). It must have been an extremely valuable part of the ship’s cargo. 

The oldest artifacts apparently were beads made of glass paste, generally by Phoenician artists going back to the 7^th-3^rd century BC found in Egypt. More recent Phoenician examples date from the 4^th-3^rd century BC exhibited at the Bardo Museum in Tunis. Typically, each bead shows a human head with big eyes and well-drawn facial details including a hairdo. 

At the small Airport Museum of Athens, there are glass beads from a necklace of the 5^th century BC decorated with the evil eye, retrieved from the local Twin Sanctuary. 

A Persian glass bowl was unearthed in Cuma, Italy, dating from 400-350 BC displayed at the British Museum in London. This means that the Persians understood the art of glass making, probably from Mesopotamian sources. 

Blown glass was a Roman invention from the 1^st century BC. This technique made it much easier to create objects as it required less time and less material. Where glassware initially was a product reserved for Egypt’s high society, it now become readily available to lower social classes. The items were more affordable and soon accessible to everyone all over the empire. As a result, archaeologists readily unearthed them in Greece, Turkey, Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, Italy, Libya, Tunisia, etc. The Römisch-Germanishes Museum in Cologne holds a rich and select assortment of artifacts, but many other museums also offer rare examples. 

The shapes and forms of the objects are endless: vases, jars, flasks, drinking glasses, pitchers, wine jugs, pyxides, perfume bottles, and even cinerary urns. A big cinerary glass urn from the 1^st-2^nd century AD is on display at the Bardo Museum, but the largest glass amphora was found in Olbia, dated to 150-80 BC, and is exhibited at the Altes Museum in Berlin. 

The most striking of all glassware and my personal favorites are the delicate blown glass vessels in the shape of a fish or galley. Also blue enameled vases, translucent and transparent ones, and bottles with fishnet decorations – all from the 1^st century AD discovered in Begram, Afghanistan. Of outstanding quality are the enameled and painted glass beakers made in Alexandria, Egypt, also found in Begram. The scenes are familiar as they represent Fighting Hoplites, an African hunt, and surprisingly, even the Rape of Europe, Ganymede and the Eagle. This impressive collection can be admired at the Musée Guimet in Paris.

Sadly, glassware rarely receives the attention it deserves because our eyes are mostly drawn towards larger works of art, such as statues and reliefs of people and gods we are familiar with. However, it certainly is rewarding to pay attention to these fine and fragile objects next time around.

Aristobulus, more than a biographer

Aristobulus of Cassandreia has been listed among the many biographers of Alexander the Great (see: Eyewitness accounts of Alexander’s life), but he was far more than that. He did not hold any military function in Alexander’s army. Consequently, not being involved allowed him to approach the events as an onlooker. 

He must have been a tough guy since he survived the hardships of Alexander’s campaigns, including the march through the Gedrosian Desert. He seems to have lived to be over ninety years old. 

When he was 83, he began writing his book about the exploits of Alexander from the early days of his kinship to his death. He was blessed with an excellent memory, being able to recall so many events, novelties, and details! Apparently, his book was finished at about the same time as Ptolemy and Cleitarchus published theirs, 285-283 BC. Unfortunately, most of his work is lost. We only have a few scraps together with his observations recorded and used later by Arrian and Strabo. 

We may assume that Aristobulus’ accounts were exact and reliable. He had a wide field of interest and investigated the land, the animals, the many peoples he encountered, the public buildings, and other construction works. Alexander’s military campaign was not his priority. 

He is best known as the engineer/ architect in charge of restoring Cyrus’ Tomb in Pasargadae, a serious responsibility that clearly shows how much Alexander trusted his capabilities. 

Aristobulus, however, was mainly a geographer. He spent much time analyzing and describing the fauna and flora he encountered, the rainfall and the Indian monsoon (whose arrival he recorded in Taxila), the rivers, and the different climates. He drew an in-depth comparison between India and Egypt, including their environment. He analyzed the river courses, placing them in a broader context as trade routes throughout Central Asia and Punjab. 

The Oxus (see: Crossing the Oxus River), for instance, was the longest river, he said, that was navigable and used to transport goods from India to the Caspian Sea. Another river that caught his attention was the Polytimetus (see: Alexander's march to Maracanda) in Sogdiana, which did not flow into another river or a sea, but petered out in the desert. 

On the other hand, fragments of Aristobulus’ text on plants have been preserved. He tells us how rice was cultivated in beds in the backwaters and that the plants were 1.75 meters tall. He said that since each plant had several ears, the harvests were plentiful, adding that the grains had to be hulled. 

The geographer also spent ink on the importance of Alexander’s visit to Siwah. Unlike fellow biographers of the king, Aristobulus detailed Alexander’s route. Ptolemy stated that Alexander headed directly for Memphis. Aristobulus, instead, wrote that the king left from Paraetonium and followed the Mediterranean for about 290 kilometers before turning south to Siwah. On the way back, Alexander founded the city of Alexandria. This implies that he returned over the same route as the one used on his outward journey. Again, this is the version of events as copied by Arrian.

We know very little about Aristobulus’ fascinating personality, but he is one of the rare authors who draws an overwhelmingly positive picture of Alexander. He depicts him as a righteous king, concerned about justice and not making hasty decisions. Another of his remarkable declarations is that Alexander was not a heavy drinker but liked to spend time with his companions, toying with his drink. That is a far cry from the many statements or hearsay statements depicting Alexander as a heavy drinker and even that the wine led to his premature death in Babylon! 

Aristobulus rightfully declares that Alexander was under the protection of the gods. Nowadays, we would say that he was born under a lucky star. Why not?

An inconspicuous Heracles

Even a four-meter-tall bronze statue of Hercules may remain unnoticed among the many treasures of the Vatican Museum in Rome. It represents Heracles (Hercules), resting on his club, with the lion skin over his arm and holding the apple of Hesperides in his left hand.

 

[Picture from Museo Vaticano]

The so-called Hercules Mastai Righetti (Mastai after the ruling Pope, and Righetti after the banker) stood in a niche at the museum’s Round Hall. It had been discovered beneath the courtyard of the Palazzo Pio Righetti in 1864 during works on the Campo dei Fiori in Rome. 

Presently, restorers have removed the dark coat of wax and other material from the 19th-century restoration. The layer of dirt and grime hid the beauty of the original gilded statue from view. As a result, this Heracles now appears in all its splendor making the archaeologists understand this is one of the most significant statues of its time.

 

They agree that the original gilding is exceptionally well-preserved. The skill displayed by the smelters to fuse mercury to gold made the gilded surface more enduring. It is the best example of compact and solid gilding ever encountered.

 

It is one of the Roman masterpieces from between the end of the 1^st century and the beginning of the 3^rd century AD, maybe inspired by an Attic school model from 390-370 BC.

 

The statue had been buried with the ritual remains of a lamb. It was found in a trench covered by a travertine slab that carried an inscription FCS, “Fulgur Conditum Summanium”, meaning “here is buried a Summanian thunderbolt”. Summanus was the ancient Roman god of nocturnal thunder and this means that the statue had been struck by lightning. As lightning was a divine force, the Romans believed that the statue was imbued with divinity. It was buried in a marble shrine at the very spot where it was hit. Divine forces occupied the place of burial and the place where the statue was hit by lighting.

 

Taking their belief a step further, the Romans said that an object struck by lightning generated love and also eternity. They were right in this case as Heracles remained hidden for over fifteen hundred years (an eternity in its own right).

 

The last task for the restorers is to repair the missing pieces that had been filled with plaster in the 19^th century. Nowadays, they use resin instead. The restoration is expected to be completed by the end of this year after which the shiny Heracles will return to the museum.

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Conclusion

( continued from Leptis Magna or what Rome must have looked like - Part II)

The city of Leptis Magna covered far more ground than the official buildings I just visited tend to imply. Two major constructions are still waiting for me, the Amphitheater and the Hippodrome. 

The Amphitheater lies approximately one kilometer from the center of Leptis Magna, close to the sea. It has been excavated in the natural rocky depression or possibly an ancient quarry. 

Thanks to an inscription, we know that it was inaugurated by the ruling governor, Marcus Pompeius Silvanus Staberius Flavinus, in his third year in office. He and his deputy dedicated the monument to Emperor Nero, meaning it was finished in 56 AD. 

The Amphitheater measured 57 x 47 meters and would accommodate as many as 16,000 people. Compared to the 50,000 seats in Rome’s Coliseum, it may seem small, but looking at it from the higher ground, it appears more impressive. The elite of Leptis Magna would elect to sit on the southeastern side of the Amphitheater, where they could enjoy a gentle breeze. 

The games were an all-day event. Typically, the early morning starts with animals fighting each other. Around noon, the criminals would be executed, i.e., thrown to the wild beasts. The afternoon was reserved for gladiators of different kinds and named after their equipment. 

In the southeastern corner of this monument stood a temple from the time of Hadrian dedicated to the goddess Artemis. Excavations early in the 20th century yielded a statue similar to the one in Ephesus, which is now exhibited at the Museum in Tripoli.

Closer to the sea are the remains of the Hippodrome or Circus built under Trajan in 112 AD. It roughly runs parallel to the coastline and is 450 meters long and 100 meters wide. Two tall vaulted passageways connected the Amphitheater to the Hippodrome. From my vantage point above, I can clearly see the spina, the central spine of the Hippodrome. Since it is not entirely excavated, the only visible rows of seats are at the far end, seemingly resting on the side of the dunes facing inland. It is estimated it could seat 23,000 spectators. 

Exceptionally, I would like to underscore the beauties of the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli because so many of the most exquisite statues and artifacts from Leptis Magna (and other antique cities on Libya’s coastline) are exhibited there. 

Leptis Magna has a small museum of its own, which collects artifacts whose quality does not rise to the standards of Tripoli. In front of the building stands a beautiful bronze statue of Septimius Severus, created by the Italians in 1940. 

At the entrance of this museum stands a welcoming marble African elephant who lost his trunk. A place of honor is reserved for the original Arch of Septimius Severus reliefs. Otherwise, there are many statues from the Theater and Hadrian’s Baths. In the corner, a group of headless figures in a toga gathers, generally larger than life-size, retrieved from the Old Forum and the Forum Novum Severianum. Rather striking and very lifelike is the face of Isis with inlaid glass eyes. The glassware and other vessels in various shapes and sizes, as well as the small frescos, merit attention. 

We mentally have to put the artwork from this museum and the one in Tripoli back into place. Still, we hardly catch a fraction of the magnificence and wealth Leptis Magna displayed in its time of glory. Picturing the wealth and opulence of Rome is clearly beyond reach!

It is evident that life in Libya has changed since my last visit. I expressed my concern in an earlier blog: Still hope, though scant, for Libya’s cultural heritage, but that was almost ten years ago. Nothing much has transpired since, and it seems the country's cultural heritage is not a priority, yet. I sincerely hope for the best!

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part II

(continued from Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part I)

At the end of Leptis Magna's Market, the Cardo continues through a rectangular Byzantine city gate to reach the Old Forum resting on Punic remains. 

This Old Forum automatically triggers visions of what may have been visible in Rome! The square is surrounded on all sides by temples, one for every god that matters, it seems. Immediately to the left is a temple that was converted into a church. Clockwise, followed by a portico and altar to Antoninus Pius, the Temple of Liber Pater, the Temple of Augustus and Rome, the Temple of Hercules, and a stele to Caius, son of Hanno. To the right are the Curia and an Old Basilica, in front of which is a small temple to the goddess Cybele. In the middle of this carefully paved Forum is a Baptistery. 

The sand-covered street behind the Old Forum is an invitation to climb to the dune top, where the beautiful deep blue Mediterranean shines as it has done over the centuries. All is calm! 

Today, the Wadi Lebda is only a small river or a dry riverbed, but in its heyday, it was Leptis Magna's harbor, complete with quays and jetties. We can still see the holes into which poles were inserted and used by the ships to tie their anchor ropes. This port was short-lived. The river had been very skillfully diverted, and several dams were built upstream to prevent the sand from siltting up the harbor. However, the harbor mouth was oriented in such a way that the undercurrent from the sea drew the sand in, and the harbor silted up anyway. Surprisingly, great master builders like the Romans could make such a mistake! 

Yet, this port appears as if it could be used again once the harbor is filled with water! The quay follows the river's course with a curvature towards the sea. There are also downward steps at regular intervals to enable the loading and unloading of the ships. At the head of the peninsula stood a lighthouse. 

In the days of Septimius Severus, an impressive colonnaded street, 420 meters long, ran parallel to the Wadi Lebda from the city center down to Leptis Magna's harbor. 

This Via Colonnata was 40 meters wide and paved with white marble slabs. It was flanked on both sides by a ten-meter-wide portico, reducing the central avenue to 20 meters. The Stoas were supported by 125 grey-green cipollino columns resting on a white marble base and crowned with white marble Pergamese capitals. The red-tiled roofs provided shade in summer and protected the citizens from the rain in winter. It must have been a sight for sore eyes! 

What remains today is a non-inspiring dirt road with bits of columns and carved stones. But the side street provides a helpful visual tool as half a dozen similar cipollino columns still stand tall. 

Behind these columns rises the high outside wall of the Severan Basilica, built by Septimius Severus and completed by his son, Caracalla, in 216 AD. This two-story monument measures 92x40 meters. The hall is crowded with two rows of two-story monolithic columns made of red Aswan granite set on white marble bases and carrying white marble Corinthian capitals. 

Like all Basilicas, this was originally a court of law converted into a church in Byzantine times. Quite unique in the present case is an apse at each end. Both apses are framed by white marble pilasters and half-columns decorated with high reliefs of plants and animals. On the north side are carved figures of Dionysus with satyrs and Maenads, whereas the south side shows the Twelve Labors of Hercules. On a sunny day, the depth of the skilled artwork really shows. In the middle of the apses are two substantial red granite columns with white marble Corinthian capitals topped with griffons that supported the roof. Like all other buildings in Leptis Magna, the walls were constructed using local limestone that was readily available. The roof would be made of wood. There may well have been windows underneath that roof to let the daylight in. At the center of the Basilica, there is also a kind of pulpit that is only partly visible. In an adjacent room on the south side of the Basilica, the Byzantines built a cruciform Baptistery. 

This Basilica is another illustration of the glory of Rome, considering its size, the use of precious marble and granite, and the craftsmanship of the details, of which there are many. 

The Basilica's west side corresponds to the Imperial Forum's short side, the Forum Novum Severianum, a gigantic square of 60x100 meters. The high walls of the surrounding buildings accentuate the size. Originally, a portico ran around the Forum, supported by Pergamese columns as found on the Via Colonnata. They are only visible on the Basilica side, where part of the portico is occupied by a row of shops. 

The beauty of this Imperial Forum may be found among the arches that span the top space between the columns. The area above each column and between the arches is filled with roundels depicting reliefs of the head of Medusa or a Nereid. A row of arches has been reconstructed on the left (long) side of the Forum, resting on Pergamese capitals. In total, at least 73 of these large medallions have been found. All Medusa heads are different and look at you from deeply furrowed eyebrows. A Nereid head is clearly placed at the end of the row. 

Opposite the Basilica on this same Forum stood the Temple of the Gens Septimia, dedicated to the worship of the Septimius family. It is said to have been built following the typical Roman pattern, high on top of a podium, and decorated with columns of red Aswan granite. No wonder this Forum is meant to be a replica of Trajan's in Rome. Septimius Severus' message was clear: his native city could not be inferior to Rome! 

I arrive at the other end of the Via Colonnata, in a vast oval square originally surrounded by the 72 columns of the Stoa. Overlooking this space stood a Nymphaeum several levels high. The back wall was entirely covered with marble, and the many niches were decorated with the most graceful statues. In and around the fountain stood many columns and other marble artifacts. The large water basin that ran alongside the street had several fountains. The scant remains still testify to the monumentality of this construction. 

Opposite the Nymphaeum is the empty space of an unpaved Gymnasium. The adjacent Baths of Hadrian skillfully fill the area towards the Wadi Lebda and the Nymphaeum. 

Those who have seen the Baths of Caracalla in Rome will recognize the sense of grandeur, although the remains of these thick walls are less telling. The bathing areas themselves, however, are better preserved: the Frigidarium, Tepidarium, and Caldarium, all carefully lined with white marble. Unique are the two Sudatoria connected to the Caldarium. This was a kind of sauna where pipes distributed the heat along the walls and under the floor. The complex also had two pools with adjoining latrines, and the pavement consisted of large white marble tiles. 

Unlike Roman constructions elsewhere made with bricks, the local limestone of Leptis Magna was also used for these Baths. Another striking feature is the porches on either side of the Tepidarium, where the sloping walls ensured more efficient air circulation and ventilation. Most statues from these Baths have been moved to the Museum in Tripoli – worth a visit of its own! 

[Read more at Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Conclusion]

Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part I

Much of Roman Leptis Magna is still standing, disclosing monuments such as the Theater, the Market and Forum, the Nymphaeums, Baths, Temples, Arches, and Basilicas. Outside the Byzantine city walls are the large Amphitheater and the Circus. Living quarters are hardly noticeable as they generally remain hidden under the sand. 

The entrance to the site of Leptis Magna is only revealed once we reach the steps leading down to the Roman street level. Here stands the imposing Arch of Septimius Severus, a quadrifrons, an arch with four equal sides. Each side straddles the intersection of the roads, the north-south Cardo leading to the Old Forum and the Decumanus Maximus connecting Carthage to Alexandria. 

Although the Italian archaeologists did their best shifting through the many broken pieces, this reconstructed arch from 202 AD looks different from what one would expect. For instance, the eight peculiar pointed triangles on top of the Corinthian columns are totally out of place. The original marble reliefs in honor of Septimius Severus and his family are copies of the originals at the Leptis Magna and Tripoli museums. It is one of the strangest contraptions I've ever seen! This quadrifrons was clearly meant to impress as it stood on a pedestal three steps above the Roman street level. It is believed to be the work of craftsmen from Asia Minor. 

From here onward, the Cardo is lined with undefined buildings till it reaches two honorary arches. One to Emperor Tiberius and the other to Emperor Trajan. This last one was erected in 109 AD to celebrate his granting the city the status of colonia. 

Next to Trajan's Arch is a large rectangular building, the Chalcidicum. It is surrounded by a portico and flanked on either side by a Nymphaeum. Between them, a series of wide steps leads to a podium crowned with four Corinthian columns. The wall behind these columns is covered with an inscription where the word Chalcidicum appears. The name may refer to the trade of metals or the building's bronze doors. An outer colonnade surrounds this Chalcidicum, erected by a local dignitary during the reign of Augustus in 11-12 AD. 

At this point, my attention is drawn to the many columns standing high on top of a circular wall at the back of the Theater. This Theater is the calling card of Leptis Magna, as it appears in every travel brochure. It is awe-inspiring, with a diameter of 70 meters and its slow-rising rows of seats to accommodate 10,000 visitors. The columns above the seating area have been partially restored to illustrate the connection point of the covered portico that covered the Theater. At its center stood a small temple dedicated to Ceres, a typical Roman concept to bring play and religion together. It yielded a statue of Tyche (Fortuna), which is now at the Museum of Tripoli. 

Of particular interest is the bilingual inscription in Latin and Punic carved on the lintel above the side entrances below the stage. It tells us that this Theater was built during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) and donated by a wealthy citizen, Annobal Rufus. The Latin text mentions that he was the son of Himilchon and held the position of Consul Suffectus (the consul who completed the term of a deceased consul) and of flamen (priest devoted to the worship of a single god, meaning that he came from a patrician family).

Imp Ceasare Divi f(filio) Aug(usto) pont(ifice) max(imo) tr(ibunicia) pot(estate) XXIV co(n)s(ule) XIII patre pat(riae) Annobl Rufus ornator patriae amator concordiae / flamen sufes praef(ectus) scr(orum) Himilchonis Tapapi f(ilius) d(e) s(ua) p(ecunia) coer(avit) idemq(ue) Dedicavit

Interestingly, the imperial figure of Augustus was left out of the Punic text! 

The Dioscuri and Castor and Pollux statues once stood on either side of the stage. The marble balustrades were decorated with the heads of Heracles and Liber Pater (god of fertility and wine, later identified with Dionysus). Altogether, 133 statues have been retrieved and moved to the Museums of Tripoli and Leptis Magna. The many statues and decorations are indisputable and could rival only Rome. 

Immediately behind the podium of the Theater is a strange trapezoidal square, the Porticus post scaenam, delimited by tall gray granite columns. It surrounds the Sanctuary of the Divine Emperors or Dei Augusti, a shrine to the emperors, who were considered gods after their death. The Monument to the Severans has been added as an extension. 

Unlike the Romans, today's visitors to the Theater can thoroughly appreciate the contrast of the deep blue sea with the many cipollino and granite columns of the Theater and the Porticus. 

Nearby is the Market from 8 AD, an actual luxury square financed by the same Annobal Rufus. The master builder is said to have taken his inspiration directly from Rome, which he had visited. The main attraction here is the twin round kiosks in the middle of the market square. The slabs between the columns served as sale counters for fish, meat, vegetables, and fruit. They look like today's Market, but I can't imagine the unavoidable stench of fish and meat on a blistering hot day like today! Both kiosks were surrounded by octagonal porticos with columns made of cipollino marble with white marble Ionic capitals for the first and Pergamese for the second. We must mentally recreate the now-lost wooden table tops resting on the marble feet in the shape of dolphins. 

Noteworthy are the panels and lists where customers can check the correct measurement of their goods. One such panel shows three standard measures of length: the Punic cubit, which equals 51.5 cm; the Graeco-Roman foot, of 29.6 cm; and the Ptolemaic or Alexandrian cubit, which is 52.5 cm long. All measurements are divided into halves, thirds, fourths, eighths, sixteenths, and multiples. Who would have thought there were strict laws regulating the weights and measures in antiquity? The original panel is displayed at the local museum, but having a copy in situ is worthwhile! There are also large stone blocks with round and square holes where the correct quantity of grain and the like could be checked. Bronze control stamps confirm their official approval. Enough to leave anyone speechless! 

Two tetrapylons with ship reliefs on their base stood between these lovely buildings, once holding statues of the city's wealthy shipowners. Another statue honored a certain Porphyrius, who brought five live elephants to Leptis Magna. Just imagine them walking through here! 

The luxury of Leptis Magna is beyond anything I've ever seen, and I find it hard to believe how Rome could surpass this beauty, grandeur, ostentation, and extravagance. And yet there is more to come. 

[Read further at Leptis Magna or What Rome must have looked like - Part II)