City of the Sharp-Nosed Fish by Peter Parsons

For those who are looking for something very different to read, this book City of the Sharp-Nosed Fish, Greek Papyri Beneath the Egyptian Sand Reveal a Long-Lost World by Peter Parsons (ISBN 0753822334) definitely is the answer.

It is about the Greeks who settled in Egypt shortly after Alexander’s time, i.e. during the reign of the Ptolemy’s. They often occupied important hierarchic positions as most of them could read and write, where for the Egyptians these skills were limited to a selected few scribes. The Egyptian hieroglyphs were, of course, a handicap as the average writer needed to know at least 10,000 signs by heart. In any case, the Greeks knew their business and introduced their alphabet which very soon became the official language in Egypt (How proud Alexander the Great would have been had he witnessed this!)

We have to step back in time to 1897, when two young English archaeologists started digging through several sandy mounds outside the antique city of Oxyrhynchus, a little south of today’s Cairo discovering to their amazement that these old rubbish dumps contained precious bits and pieces of papyri, sometimes even entire sections of old books.

A small portion of about 10% turn out to be official documents, theater plays, poems and other literature. The remaining part are letters and notes from daily life that shed a clear light on the organization and structure of the town. There are complaints about the water supply, the construction of new streets or the building of houses, disputes with the administration or neighbors’ quarrels, etc. And then to think that this is only the tip of the ice(sand)berg for about 500,000 pieces are being kept at the British Museum, carefully stored inside old newspaper pages locked away inside metal boxes. Whenever such a box is opened for examination nobody knows what to expect. The bits of papyri have to be deciphered first after which the experts have to find out in which context they'll eventually fit.

Most of these papyri date from the 2nd and 3rd century AD, i.e. from Roman times as the lower layers of rubbish have mostly been damaged by ground-water. The top layers on the other hand have been used by the local population over the centuries as fertilizer for their meager fields. This means that from time to time the patient reader lays hands on excerpts from books whose existence is known but that have not come to us. I still have a secret hope that one day new information about Alexander the Great will surface from this rubble - from Ptolemaic times for instance, it is a possibility, isn’t it? That would be a highly interesting discovery! The thought alone …

Yes, my imagination is giving me wings when I read a book like this. Such a source of information, and who knows what else we can learn when these personal letters, shopping lists, wills, fragments from Greek literature and censured Gospels will be deciphered. This will evidently take several more years since there are only a handful of scholars who are familiar enough with ancient texts to be able to place them in their pertaining context.

Yet each chapter of this book makes exciting reading, like for instance the one about the dikes. By the time the flooding of the Nile was expected, all citizens had the obligation to repair and rise their portion of the dikes, and to clear their section of irrigation canals. Official dike-watchers inspected the operations very closely, and you were not allowed to charge anyone money instead of doing the work or to subcontract the job. When the Romans ruled Egypt, the system was already in place for thousands of years and it worked the same way till 1889! Well, I always thought that it were the Dutch who invented the water management with their dikes, requesting each landowner to clear his own stretch of canal! It is amazing to realize that the more I dig in ancient history (in the broadest possible way) the more I see the wheel is being reinvented over and over.

There definitely is enough reading material here to entice everybody’s imagination and to lift a small corner of the veil of time. The voices of the marketers come back to life, from the donkey-drivers to the wine-merchants in and around the once flourishing bustling city of Oxyrhynchus.

Whoever wants more in depth information about these exciting papyri of Oxyrhynchus can click on the link of the University of Oxford, Department of Papyrology.

More wars and end of the Peace Treaty with Athens - Macedonia forged by Philip II - 10

More wars and end of the Peace Treaty with Athens (345-341 BC)

Yet the peace that had been so hard to reach was far from being achieved. The Thebans were unhappy to be left out; the Spartans complained about being isolated, and even the Thessalians resented the peace outcome for they had expected more. Athens was not faring any better in 345 BC for Demosthenes did all he could to sabotage the treaty, while Aeschines tried by all means to keep it alive.

Meanwhile, Philip was up north fighting some obscure war against what is now southern Albania where he broke his collarbone. Details of these encounters are not known but they led Philip to take the drastic and emphatic decision to submit the conquered peoples once and for all. The facts seem to be related by Justin only. Philip moved entire cities and tribes to areas he felt needed to be populated. Some people were settled right on his borders to serve as a buffer against his enemies, others were moved to the far frontiers of his kingdom, and yet others were used to repopulate some of his cities. His aim apparently was to create one cohesive kingdom with one people instead of the large numbers of tribes and clans spread all over his territories. Although this may be considered as being a useful tactical and political move, the victims of this move were far from content. According to Justin, the overall feeling was that of deep fear, "there was a silent, forlorn dejection, as men feared that even their tears might be taken to signify opposition” – a picture far from the loving and caring king we want to see. But in Philip’s eyes, this decision was a rational one as these new cities served as training grounds for the military where boys would be trained the Macedonian way. They would acquire experience defending the outposts, indirectly adding power to the king’s army. This was also the time when Philip ordered the swampy areas to be drained and turned into agricultural land. He had new roads built that could be used year-round and made sure of the rivers by building dikes. It is important to note that is was the army that undertook most of these projects, creating a kind of engineering corps that would be crucial in later years, especially in Alexander’s conquests east.

[picture graciously shared by Jim]

In the summer of 344 BC, Philip headed south towards Thessaly which was still sulking over the peace treaty. He had heard enough complaints, he seized Larissa and Pherae and installed Macedonian garrisons in several places. He even went as far as to revive their old administrative system of tetrarchies, meaning that each of the original four tribes was again headed by a governor, appointed by the king, and answerable only to him. In this way, he remained firmly in control.

But then it was the Molossian ruler who created new problems for Macedonia and Philip invaded Epirus to settle the matter once and for all. It turned out to be a bloodless campaign; the Molossian king left for Athens (he had Athenian citizenship) and Philip put Alexander, his brother-in-law, on the throne – a wise move because this Alexander had spent time at Philip’s court and was Olympias’ brother. Macedonia’s southwestern border was now properly secured while the king acquired access to rich timberland and pastureland.

As was to be expected, Demosthenes had done his utmost to convince the Athenians that the peace treaty with Philip was worthless, using every opportunity and trick in the book to manipulate his audience and distort Philip’s words. By 342/341 BC the famous peace treaty collapsed entirely.

Click here to read the full story about Philip II from the beginning

End of the Third Sacred War and Peace with Athens - Macedonia forged by Philip II - 9

End of the Third Sacred War and Peace with Athens (346 BC)

An embassy of ten men was sent to Pella to discuss ‘peace and the common interests of Athens and Philip’ (see: Demosthenes). This would be the first of four embassies. Personally, I find this passage very exciting because of the vivid and captivating story told by Mary Renault in her book Fire from Heaven, featuring young Alexander.  The ten envoys traveled to Pella in March 346 BC, when Alexander was about ten years old. Among them were great names like Philocrates, Nausicles, Demosthenes, and Aeschines. Each had prepared his speech on the proposed alliance and peace, and they had decided to speak in order of age, the youngest last and this happened to be Demosthenes after Aeschines who tells us that he began “in a voice dead with fright, and after a brief narration of earlier events suddenly fell silent and was at a loss for words, … Seeing the state he was in, Philip encouraged him to take heart and not to suppose that he had suffered a complete catastrophe. … But Demosthenes … was now unable to recover; he tried once more to speak, and the same thing happened.” What an appearance for such an orator!

Having listened graciously to every ambassador, Philip told them that he recognized Athens’ claim to the Chersonese, their corn route to the Black Sea. On the subject of the Sacred War, he made believe through his usual confusing diplomacy that he would consider the protection of the Phocians but he needed Athens’ full guarantee to support him in this matter. In other words, he meant to exclude Phocis from the treaty. As to the Athenian prisoners taken at Olynthus in 348 BC, he would release them without ransom as soon as they had accepted his terms – a handy gesture to put their fate in Athens’ hands. In short, Philip’s idea was that of a bilateral agreement between him and his allies on one side and Athens and their allies on the other.

As soon as the embassy left, Philip set off to Thracia to clean up all their independent forts along the coastline, but not before he had sent Antipater, Parmenion, and Eurylochus to Athens to repeat his terms of peace and received Athens’ consent in return. The news was buzzing in Athens’ Assembly, which at first was inclined to accept Philip’s proposal but Demosthenes had to put his own twist as usual and persuaded the Assembly to go for a Common Peace in which every state was free to join. Of course, this was refused by Antipater when he was called in the next day for that were not his king’s terms. In the end, the Athenians and their allies swore their oaths to the peace and alliance to Macedonia.

The Macedonian envoys left Athens which prepared a second delegation with the same men to set off to Pella. Since Philip was still warring in Thracia, the Athenians sat there waiting for some time while Demosthenes filled his days with brooding schemes. After Philip gave his oath to peace, the company left and collected the oaths from the king’s allies on their way back to Athens. By this treaty, the war between Athens and Amphipolis finally came to an end.

Philip then played his own political maneuver with Thebes which in the end forced the Phocians to surrender, not to the Amphictyonic Council as they should, but to Philip. How that went down with the Athenians in 346 BC, I don’t know. They must have been relieved to learn that the Third Sacred War was now over and that Delphi finally was liberated – Apollo’s crowned soldiers had done their job!

At this stage, the punishment of Phocis had to be decided and the Athenians once more sent an embassy to Philip, without Demosthenes this time, who thought he could do more harm to Philip talking to the people of Athens… It is this delegation that attended the Amphictyonic Council instead of Athens. Several states wanted to impose the legal penalty for sacrilege, whereby all the Phocian males would be thrown from the Phaedriades cliffs of Delphi. Since Philip did not want to take sides for or against Phocis he managed to obtain a milder punishment, meaning that those who had participated in the occupation and robbery of Delphi would be cursed, their lands confiscated, their membership to the Council withdrawn, their weapons and horses taken away. Phocis itself would not be allowed to consult the oracle and the people couldn’t buy any horses until they had repaid the money stolen from Delphi’s treasury. The exact sum is not known but seems to vary between 1,622 and 3,244 talents, a considerable amount of money in any case.

To reward Philip for the liberation of Apollo’s treasury, Thessaly proposed to give Phocis two votes in the Council to Philip, who as Archon automatically held at least half of all the votes already. These two votes, however, were Philip’s in his own right, whereby he became an official member of the Amphictyonic Council  – no small achievement for a ‘barbarian’ king!

Click here to read the full story about Philip II from the beginning

Dion, the Macedonian Sanctuary

Dion, at the feet of Mount Olympus, has been Macedonian Sanctuary for eons. It was here that Alexander brought offerings to Zeus before crossing to Asia. It was here that his father, King Philip II, came to celebrate his many glorious victories. It was here that King Archelaos started brightening up the festivals with athletic and theatrical performances. But all Macedonian kings had one thing in common: they gathered here to sacrifice and bring offerings to the Olympian gods, whatever the occasion. Enough reason for me to take a close look at the place, not the least because of Alexander’s multiple visits.

Although Dion became part of a Roman colony founded by Emperor Augustus in the 1^st century AD, the city managed to preserve its Greek character up to the Byzantine times. Yet, after a combination of natural disasters and repeated invasions by the Goths in the 5^th century AD, Dion sank into oblivion.

The drive from Thessaloniki takes me south past the antique sites of Methoni and Pydna, past modern Katerini till mighty Mount Olympus looms at the horizon on my right, an unforgettable and most rewarding view!

Directions in and around Dion (modern Dio) are very clear. The town has been able to lead tourist traffic in such a way as not to interfere too much with the community's daily life. Not much has changed here except for a handful of souvenir stores and cafés. I decided to start with the Museum as it is said to close at 3 pm (the excavation site is open until 7 pm) - we are never sure what to expect when walking through a museum or an archaeological site, are we?

The Museum is not big but offers some interest, although I am still trying to decide whether to visit the Museum before or after seeing the antique Dion. I have done it both ways, once in 2006 and now in 2011, but it does not make the explanations any easier. I still have difficulty matching one with the other. Dion is a sanctuary, meaning, in fact, a collection of temples and altars ranging from the 4^th century BC all the way to the 5^th century AD. Even walking around Dion, it is very confusing to sort out the array of buildings, especially here at the Museum, where bits and pieces must match the remains in the field.

I pick out the pieces that most appeal to me: some statues (like that of Hygeia); heads (Demeter and Niké); funeral steles (Hunter with his dog and Mother and Child); slender funeral craters that are well preserved; terracotta statuettes (a lovely Macedonian boy); coins of all kinds and mainly Macedonian; glass beads and other pieces of jewelry; small ivory heads from funeral couches; mosaics (spiral mosaic from the Villa of Dionysos); and a superbly reconstructed hydraulic organ. I even spent some time checking out the inscribed slabs: like the Treaty between King Perseus and the Boeotians, a Letter that Philip V wrote to a certain Eurylochus, and the base for a statue of Cassander. Outside in the grass, I find a dozen or so Roman tombs with Greek inscriptions and, in the shelter of a portico, a stone tomb door, much like the one reconstructed at the Museum of Pella.

The Museum has no cafeteria, but I find the place across the street inviting enough. Their coffee (Greek) is excellent, and their toilets are clean. It is a good thing to take a short break to digest all the impressions before heading for the actual site of Dion, which is, in fact, within walking distance.

Obviously, this location was chosen by the gods in a broad flat valley under the watchful eye of snowcapped Olympus. Its icy waters ran and still run through Dion, and this holy river saved the city from plundering when it disappeared under two meters of water and mud after heavy earthquakes. We had to wait for centuries to put the town back on the map, as many pumps and sluice gates are still helping to keep our feet dry.

I start with the Greek theater, where a wooden reconstruction has been implemented, and the original layout is still visible. It was located outside the actual city walls and built during the reign of Philip V (221-179 BC). It looks out over a splendid park-like field, where Alexander pitched the tents to entertain his one hundred guests, friends, officers, and ambassadors from all over Greece to celebrate his departure for Asia. The huge Altar of Zeus, where he made his offerings, is situated near the other end, close to the Roman Theatre from the 2^nd century AD. Not often can one come so close to Alexander as we can here.

I wonder if it was in this area that I should picture the famous bronze group made by Lysippos, Alexander’s dedicated sculptor. It represented and was dedicated to 25 cavalrymen who had fallen during the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander’s first victorious confrontation with Persia.

Evidently, the main god worshiped in Dion was the Olympian Zeus, after whom the city was named (the genitive of "Zeus" being Dios). The sanctuaries were used not only by the inhabitants of Dion but also served the religious needs of a more significant number of people during the festivals, with thousands of visitors. Here, the base of a large statue of King Cassander was found, now in the Museum. Various pilgrims' offerings were placed in the sanctuaries of Dion. At the Sanctuary of Olympian Zeus, inscriptions referred to important state affairs such as peace treaties, regulation of boundaries, honorary decrees, etc., some of which are now in the Museum. The Macedonians who crowded these festivals could read these texts and be informed – an official newspaper, in a way.

It is a most pleasant walk along the banks of the clear, fast-flowing stream where fish and crabs have found a home till I reach the Sanctuary of Demeter. This is the earliest Macedonian sanctuary known to date and was used uninterruptedly from the late 6^th century BC to the early 4^th century AD. For a layman, it is not easy to figure out the remains of walls and chambers, but with some effort, one can discern two small temples of the megaron type with an open antechamber and a cella. This is where most of the offerings were found, statuettes, lamps, vessels, beads, etc., which all indicate that an earth goddess of fertility was worshiped here, confirmed by an inscription referring to Demeter (4^th century BC).

I now have to cross the lowest part of this cult area, which always seems to be more or less flooded – no wonder, when to my great surprise, I see the many springs bubbling up amidst the ruins! Reflecting in the water and amidst lush green growths lie the elegant Sanctuaries of Serapis, Isis, and Anubis that came to this region during the Hellenistic period thanks to the propaganda of the Ptolemies of Egypt. It is a pleasant sight to see how these statues bathe in the water or admire their mirror image. A metal bridge has been put in place so we can walk closely through this eerie setting. When I climb out of this depth, I pass a Byzantine wall where an unknown deity and the head of Aigle have been reused in its construction. How dare they!

Past the remains of the Roman city wall, I finally enter the city of Dion, which is generally Roman from the 2^nd century. There is an entire network of streets along which many buildings, warehouses, private houses, and public baths have risen. A few of these constructions stand out, of course, for instance, the Roman Baths with parts of the mosaic floors and the hypocaust still in place, or the Polygon Villa with a 12-sided courtyard surrounded by columns giving access to the house. At the entrance, we can still admire the 3rd-century mosaic of wrestlers at practice, a very Roman portrait. Further down to the east, we find the remains of the Villa of Dionysos, which takes its name from the large mosaic depicting the god that covers the floor of the banqueting room. And then there is the set of reliefs showing very Macedonian cuirasses and shields that have been set up alongside one of the streets dedicated by Alexander after the Battle of the Granicus. In some places, you can even see sewage conduits underneath these streets. It always makes me wonder how we managed to lose this knowledge in our Middle Ages and had to entirely reinvent the system. If you look closely, you’ll also notice that many mosaic floors have been covered with plastic and gravel to protect them, but it’s so unfortunate that we cannot see them!

Dion is much less well-known than the Sanctuary of Delphi, for instance, but it is certainly not less inspiring. It definitely completes a thorough visit to Greek Macedonia. 

The Fall of Olynthus - Macedonia forged by Philip II - 8

The Fall of Olynthus (348 BC)

After his march through Thracia in 351 BC, Philip had given the Olynthians a serious warning, avoiding a direct attack, maybe because they had granted asylum to his half-brothers, Menelaus and Arrhidaeus, and to Machatas, the exiled brother of Phila, Philip’s first wife. But now it seems that even ten years after being crowned king of Macedonia, Philip still felt the need to eliminate possible pretenders to the throne when Olynthus, at the head of a league of about 32 cities, refused bluntly to surrender the possible pretenders to the throne and a full-scale Macedonian invasion was launched in the summer of 349 BC.

Marching in from the north, Philip’s strategy was to isolate Olynthus and for that purpose he attacked the cities around it, picking one after another. He besieged and razed Stagira to the ground as a main warning. Other towns like Stratonicia, Acanthus, Apollonia, and Arethusa got the message and surrendered immediately but not Olynthus, which called for Athens’ help. It took Athens a while to make up its mind and when it did, Philip had taken his army away on a short campaign to settle matters with rebellious Pherae in Thessaly. But he returned to Chalcidice a few months later and a new Athenian force was sent to Olynthus’ rescue; it failed. Philip took Apollonia, then Torone, and shortly thereafter Mecyberna, the port of Olynthus. Now that reinforcements couldn’t reach Olynthus from the sea anymore, Philip was in a position to sack the city. A last support attempt was made by Athens, sending a huge fleet that was seriously hampered by the Etesian Winds (which blew between May and September) and arrived too late. Olynthus had been taken and leveled entirely, not without putting up a serious fight as proven by the bolt-heads from catapults that were found carrying Philip’s name. His two half-brothers were executed and the Athenians present in the city were taken to Pella as prisoners to be negotiated over later on. After Olynthus fell, Philip went to Dion to celebrate the festival in honor of Zeus Olympus with lavish sacrifices, extensive symposia as only he could organize, and spectacular competitions.

It is interesting to see how the sack of Olynthus by Philip because of their sheltering pretenders to the throne can be compared to Alexander when razing Thebes to the ground about a decade later for the same reason since they harbored Amyntas, the legal heir in 359 BC – as suggested by some inscriptional evidence. Alexander has walked further in his father’s footsteps than we may think at first sight.

This meant the end of the Chalcidian League and with it Athens’ chances to recover Amphipolis. Philip now had full control over the peninsula’s rich timber and minerals (gold and silver), and he replaced the local coins with Macedonian coinage, especially the silver tetradrachme and later the gold staters that eventually circulated all over the ancient world.

Click here to read the full story about Philip II from the beginning
Click here to see the pictures of Olynthus

Olynthus and its houses

Several months ago, in the frame of the exhibition on Alexander the Great at the Hermitage in Amsterdam, I attended a lecture about Macedonia where one of the subjects treated was the city of Olynthus.

To me, Olynthus was a city repeatedly besieged by King Philip, Alexander’s father, in his attempt to create a united Macedonia. Ultimately, he razed it from the map, flattening the entire place in a final crush. So, it would be interesting to learn more about this part of history. As it turned out, this was not to be the main focus of the lecture, it was to be the houses of Olynthus, and I was in for several surprises!

The town is located in southwestern Chalcidice, covering two flat-topped hills in the middle of a fertile plain, about ten kilometers north of Potideia. The origin of Olynthus goes back to its mythological founder, Olynthus, son of Heracles. Still, the oldest remains date from Neolithic times in the third millennium BC, which were destroyed by the Persians in 479 BC.

We owe it to King Perdiccas II of Macedonia to order local tribes and settlements to move to Olynthus. This population increase led to the city's actual organization, which soon covered the entire north hill. Here, the new town was built according to a grid plan, the Hippodamian plan. Hippodamus of Miletus (498-403 BC), although an eccentric figure in his time, was the father of urban planning. He conceived the city layout with wide straight streets crossing each other at square angles, inevitably leading to an ample space in its very center where the Agora would emerge so the citizens could meet and greet in one central location. The first city to be built according to this principle was, of course, Miletus in Asia Minor. Still, the idea took on rather quickly, and Olynthus and Pella were to be built this way (eventually lavishly implemented by Alexander the Great when he founded his many cities in the east and generously copied by the practical Romans).

From 432 BC onward Olynthus’ power rose substantially to become the leader of the Chalcidian League, a confederation of 32 cities on the Chalcidice peninsula. Both Athens and Macedonia would love to have Olynthus as an ally rather than as their enemy. Still, an alliance with Olynthus never lasted long as they kept changing camp according to their own whims.

In 357 BC, King Philip II concluded a peace treaty with Olynthus and its allies, i.e., against Athens (part of this text is being kept at the nearby Museum of Polygyros). But a couple of years later, Olynthus changed its mind again and sought an alliance with Athens, who in return did nothing or close to nothing to help them. At first, Philip maneuvered in such a way as to isolate Olynthus by taking one neighboring city after the other and thus seriously cutting down its power. In 348 BC, he besieged Olynthus and razed it to the ground. Useless to point out that the speaker in Amsterdam had my undivided attention, and it was obvious I had to see Olynthus for myself on my next trip to Macedonia – which I did.

Because Olynthus has been (nearly) completely flattened, it is easy to get a good overview of its layout. Although hardly 1/10^th of the total area has been excavated, two large avenues, 7 meters wide, clearly stand out with smaller streets dividing the city into blocks (a familiar sight in major American cities today!). Each block counted ten houses with one upper floor and a paved yard. Amazingly, some of the earliest floor mosaics in Greek art have been discovered here!

It is surprising to learn that most of the houses have a similar ground plan which is commonly referred to as “pastas houses”, i.e. roughly squares of 17 x 17 meters, divided in two almost equal parts, while the northern half is again divided in two. This means that the walls and supporting columns are all placed according to a common rule required: one single roof covers all the northern halves of the entire row of houses. Life evolved around a central courtyard situated in the southern half, which opened onto the long northern portico, i.e., the “pastas.” This portico was the focal point in each house, a convenient and comfortable working area. Nearly all the rooms opened directly to the court or to the pastas. It turns out that the houses in Olynthus were non-hierarchical, meaning there were no main or dominant rooms or backrooms. This differentiates them from the “prostas” type of houses that the Romans built in later years.

All Olynthian houses had a room dedicated as a kitchen area, sometimes with a built-in hearth, and another small room assigned to bathing as several bathtubs have been found in situ with their drainage system. But what stroke me most during this lecture was the illustration of the rooms used as “andron.” Now the “andron” is a kind of formal dining room, only for men, of course, which was used primarily for the Greek “symposiums.” These were dinner parties in which the host took care of entertaining his guests, deciding on the subject to be debated during the long eating and drinking séances, and making sure the appropriate amount of water was mixed with the wine. There were music players, but also young boys and hetaerae to be at the dedicated service of the guests. After a few hours, it was obvious that things ran out of hand, and the mosaic floors were valuable assets when cleaning up the mess the guests made of food, wine, and vomit. In Olynthus, these “androns” usually were square rooms of approximately 5 x 5 meters, with plastered and painted walls around which a raised border of about one meter high indicates the place for the couches (klinè). Because of their setting against the walls, the “androns” in Olynthus could hold seven “klinè,” which meant that the room entrance was off center. The floor was drained by a pipe running through the walls straight into the street, an efficient way to clean up after a messy revelry.

There seem to be considerable variations in these house plans; some have larger “androns,” others larger kitchens or general rooms. Several houses had special workrooms and shops with an opening to the street. Besides that, the homes on one block could be very distinctive from those on another block, perhaps because of a different social status or people exercising a different trade.

Armed with all this background information, I’m off to see Olynthus for myself! The city is within easy reach from Thessaloniki; driving south till the freeway turns into a local road and making sure to turn left in Nea Moudania instead of driving on towards the peninsula of Kassandra. The antique city, now called Megale Toumba, lies on the eastern side of the river Olynthios, while the modern town has relocated to the opposite side. The place is fenced and the access path equals a walk in the park, which in spring bursts with a wide range of flowers and blossoming bushes of all kinds where the busy bees are having a party.

Soon the road runs uphill, and I am treated to the first overall view over the remains of this once so proud city. The walls are approximately knee-high, mainly thanks to the archaeologists' reconstruction work. They have done an excellent job here, inserting a pinkish layer of cement where the original stones end and the newly restored ones have been added. It is a clear example of what “razed to the ground” means,  as historians tell us, for that would have offered us very little to see. I stare immediately into one of the main streets running slightly uphill, giving the impression of an aerial view. Modern excavators have named these avenues, while the smaller crossroads are labeled as streets. At more or less regular intervals, the excavators have placed boards with pertaining information about the streets and the houses so that even the unprepared visitor will find the answers he is looking for.

I follow one of the side streets to its dead end against the city wall, where the sewage conduct that runs underneath this street continues through the wall out of the city. I now remember how during the lecture I was told that the walls of the town and the houses might have had only stone basis whereas the top part was built in brick or mud. That would partially explain how Olynthus was destroyed to the ground, although it was located in a strategic and well-defendable position. The Olynthians put up a fierce fight! It took Philip nearly two years to conquer the city with a short interruption for a campaign in Thessaly. At any rate, his army found the time to engrave their spearheads with a personal message “ΦΙΛΙΠΠO” from Philip. The king and his army must have had quite a sense of humor! Examples of these spearheads can be admired at the nearby Museum of Polygyros, exciting stuff!

In most houses, the wells have been located and nicely preserved – covered with a grid to keep the absent-minded visitor from falling into the pit. I come across one well with the restored wooden frame around it, very interesting. And then, there are the floor mosaics that were left in their original location. As I mentioned above, these are the oldest examples showing well-preserved geometrical motives framed within typical Greek bands. They are comparable to the better-known mosaics at Pella, although not as “royal,” maybe. I recognize the Macedonian sun in one of them while the corners are filled with volutes supporting the wave pattern around the sun. Another one shows a horseback hunter wearing the typical Macedonian hat as he rides in full gallop like in the images we have seen of Alexander the Great. One entrance exposes a deer attacked by two griffons, delicately worked out in small pebbles. Breathtaking to watch!

The Bouleuterion that has been discovered is in a relatively poor state with no seats left, only the socles of the columns that once supported the roof. And in the corner next to it are the remains of a fountain or Nymphaeum, partially reconstructed above the ever-present pinkish cement line.

One of the reasons why Philip so thoroughly flattened Olynthus may have been that the city had given asylum to two of his half-brothers, possible pretenders to the throne of Macedonia. However, we may never know this for sure, but the brothers were killed – problem solved.

At the foot of this hill is a small museum offering an exhibition of pictures taken before, during, and after the site's restoration. Still, it also includes some aerial views that can be very helpful for those who want some extra orientation.

To conclude, I would like to mention that Callisthenes (ca. 370-327 BC), the biographer of Alexander the Great who accompanied him on all his campaigns, was born here in Olynthus. All this proves that Olynthus was not just any city, but a city with lots of history to tell.

[Click here to see all the pictures of Olynthus]

Philip vs. Demosthenes, an ongoing business - Macedonia forged by Philip II - 7

Philip vs. Demosthenes, an ongoing business (351 BC)

In an attempt to simplify things, I generally am skipping the names of kings, generals or other people involved in all these skirmishes, negotiations, and battles but I would like to make one exception for Demosthenes. Athens, as it turned out, was Philip’s bitterest enemy and Demosthenes was the politician who put it into words. Athens was a democracy where people had the final say in all matters through the Assembly which would address the issues and vote by a show of hands. Another important component was the Boulé or Council that would set up the agenda of the Assembly and serve as its advisor while meeting on a daily basis. A number of men took advantage of their rhetorical skills to address the people and one of them was Demosthenes, who earned the reputation as the greatest Greek writer of speeches, but if he did so out of patriotism or simply to attack Philip’s credibility remains to be proven. In any case, he was highly influential in Athens’ decision to support Olynthus against Philip as he wrote an extensive speech for each call for help, known as the three Olynthiacs.

The fact is that Demosthenes did not realize that the days of Athens’ polis system were counted and that he could have given Philip at least a chance to rally on an equal basis when he made this overture. It was clear that Philip could make a decision and act upon it immediately while the Athenian system was slow and by the time they reached a decision it was often too late. Philip had raised a vast number of soldiers and could draw forces from Thessaly or other allies if needed. Because of the Third Sacred War at their doorstep, the Greeks had allowed this to happen and by the time this war was over some ten years later they had no way to stop Philip anymore. But we are not there yet.

With his power growing, Philip felt the time was right to seek a personal revenge by attacking Thebes. He had not forgotten his years there as a hostage; relations between Macedonia and Thebes had never been easy and now that he was more involved in the matters of Central Greece he was not going to miss the opportunity to teach them a lesson. He could not, of course, turn openly against Thebes but used Athens and Phocis, working behind the scenes. His manipulation would ultimately lead to ending the Third Sacred War and the war with Athens over Amphipolis. Everybody in Athens, including Demosthenes, believed this and thought it wise to make peace with Philip before he would set off to make more conquests. What Philip really wanted was a treaty of peace and alliance where he and the Athenians were equals, something that probably did not sink in with the Athenians.

Click here to read the full story about Philip II from the beginning

Philip is bouncing back - Macedonia forged by Philip II - 6

Philip is bouncing back (352 BC)

Philip was not going to sit idle on his hands, of course. He had learned his lesson (one that even Alexander was aware of as we witness later on in history) and his first step was to restore the troops’ morale and their confidence in him as a king. He had to keep his army busy and victorious. Keeping Macedonia’s borders safe was not enough, he needed to expand in Greece or even in Asia.

With his head high, Philip marched his newly inspired army into Thessaly in 352 BC and ordered his men to wear crowns of laurel as they went into battle – a highly symbolic sign to show that he was fighting for a religious cause, on behalf of Apollo “as though the god were going before” (see: Justin, Diodorus) and not merely for revenge or on behalf of his Thessalian allies. In a well-orchestrated attack of cavalry and infantry together with the Thessalians, Philip soon annihilated the Phocians on what is called the Crocus Field. As the story goes, a large number of them simply fled out of guilt when they saw the crowned Macedonians attacking on behalf of their god. Over 6,000 Phocians and mercenaries were killed in battle; 3,000 were captured and drowned to punish them for the sacrilege of seizing Delphi. No mercy, that is clear. This battle restored Philip’s leadership and the confidence of his army, which he never lost again.

Philip immediately saw his opportunity to secure Macedonia’s southern border by stabilizing the situation in Thessaly. An agreement was signed at Pherae, consolidated by his marriage with a local woman named Nicesipolis (she died 20 days after giving birth to their daughter Thessalonica, meaning ‘Thessalian Victory’). It hereby became clear that whoever defected from the Thessalian League of City-states also defected from Philip. His position was so strong now that he was elected archon (leader) for life, a highly exceptional nomination as he was not a Thessalian. The Third Sacred War was at a stalemate.

I am really amazed to see how often the Macedonian army is marching up and down northern Greece, crossing it time and again from east to west or vice versa.

By now, the Athenians had regained their influence over the Chersonese, and eastern Thracia, fickle as ever, had abandoned Philip once again. On top of that Olynthus had sued for peace with Athens. High time for Philip to reassert his presence and chance worked in his favor. In late 352 BC, he was asked to assist a coalition of Central Thracia, Byzantium, and Perinthus (two cities inside the territory of eastern Thracia) in besieging the fortress town of Heraion Teichos, close to Perinthus. He marched his army east, took the town, and returned it to Perinthus, presumably its original owner. This may sound like a trivial intervention but it meant another blow for the Athenians who jealously wanted to keep the corn route from the Black Sea in their hands. We should not forget that each spring Athenian ships loaded with wheat from the Danube and Maritza basins, sailed down via Byzantium, the Hellespont, and further across the Aegean to Athens. On this route, they badly needed safe havens for their precious cargo and now Philip was threatening their supply line.

Philip now turned to Olynthus where it did not come to open war, a stern warning seemed to have done the trick - for now at least. After a short intervention in Epirus where Philip extended his power by taking his nephew Alexander, i.e., Olympias’ younger brother, with him to court at Pella, he turned his full attention again to the peninsula of Chalcidice. The Olynthians still made trouble in spite of their treaty of 357 BC and Philip’s earlier warning.

Click here to read the full story about Philip II from the beginning