Reading the papyrus scrolls from Herculaneum

The Villa dei Papiri as reconstructed in Malibu, California, got its name from the huge amount of papyrus scrolls found inside the house’s Library in Herculaneum. 

Unlike Pompeii, Herculaneum did not burn after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD but was buried under a meters-thick layer of pumice. That saved the Library of the Villa that once belonged to Julius Caesar’s father-in-law. The collection counted more than 1800 papyrus scrolls and is considered to be the largest surviving Library from Graeco-Roman antiquity. 

When the carbonized scrolls were discovered in the early 1800s, hopes were high to explore the long-lost literary works from antiquity. These scrolls were, however, very fragile and disintegrated as soon as they were touched. 

Attempts to open and unroll the rolls destroyed many of them, although some painstaking efforts by a monk revealed philosophical texts written in Greek. Three centuries later we are still trying to understand how to read the papyrus scrolls. 

In 2015, a process called micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) was developed to virtually unwrap fragile scrolls. It was used successfully to digitally recover a burned Hebrew scroll. 

Hopes ran high to apply the same technique for the papyri of Herculaneum. Unfortunately, they present another challenge as these texts are written in carbon ink, called “lamp black”. This type of ink is not detected by the micro-CT imaging system and the writing becomes ‘invisible’. More in-depth studies and new ‘learning machines’ eventually opened the path to reading four passages inside the unopened carbonized scrolls. 

In order to read entire scrolls, two key technical problems need to be solved. The first is to trace the papyrus surface inside the scan of the scroll, which is called segmentation. For the time being, this can only be done manually and costs a fortune. The other issue is the scanning, which is currently carried out using a particle accelerator in England. This involves a precious conservator-supervised transfer of the scrolls, two at a time, from Naples to England! 

The entire process requires much more fine-tuning and careful planning to finally set up a workable and above all affordable technique – as the entire organization is very expensive. With a little luck, it is expected that the scanning and reading of the 300 scrolls from Naples could be completed in two to three years. 

This will be a huge step forward to disclose the contents of hitherto unknown books and even new titles. So much history, literature, philosophy, and poetry that remained buried for two thousand years would finally be available! This is absolutely mind-blowing! 

Yet, there may be hundreds or even thousands of scrolls still buried in the Library of the Villa dei Papiri and, who knows, elsewhere among the ruins of Herculaneum! As we know, excavations are time-consuming and will depend on the funds made available to that effect. Only time will tell.

[Pictures from Vesuvius Challenge]

The short-lived appearance of King Langaros

Alexander’s campaign into the Balkans before marching east to conquer the Persian Empire is often neglected and even forgotten in literature. 

Only occasionally, do we find a name. This is the case for Langaros, King of the Agrianes, who had openly chosen to side with Alexander as he had done with Philip before him. 

When Alexander made his way to Pelium in 335 BC, he faced a threatening revolt of the Illyrians led by Cleitus, king of the Dardanians. Cleitus had persuaded the Autariatae and the Taulantians to join forces (see: Alexander's psychological warfare in Pelium, Illyria). The situation looked bleak for Alexander who needed to know more about the strength of these Autariatae. 

Langaros, faithful to Alexander, attended him with his bodyguard, the finest and best-equipped troops, and told his friend that he would take care of this warlike tribe. He actually did so and with Alexander’s consent, he invaded and occupied the Autariatae territory, causing severe losses to their common enemy. 

Alexander showered Langaros with every mark of honor and gifted him with many high-valued presents as proper at the Macedonian court. He also promised Langaros that if he visited him at Pella, he would give him his half-sister Cynane in marriage. Cynane was the daughter of Philip II and his Illyrian wife Audata (see: The many wives of Philip II of Macedonia). It was not be, as Langaros, after returning home, fell ill and died. 

Our only source for this story is Arrian, who kindly remembered him. 

Recent archaeological digs near the city of Kumanova in North Macedonia have revealed remains of an important yet unknown town from the 4^th century BC. Beside a pool with a plastered floor, some plastered walls, capitals and bases of columns, and appliqués have been found. They are consistent with similar details from Aegae and Pella. 

It is far too early to draw any conclusion right now and to link the ruins to King Langaros’ capital. The pictures of the site are not adding much to the story yet. As we know, excavations in that part of the world are slow to materialize. 

This King Langaros is not to be confounded with the Illyrian King Longarus, who ruled over the Dardanians from 231 to 206 BC. 

Longarus, however, played an important role in the life of Philip V of Macedonia, who regularly attacked the Dardanians. Taking advantage of Philip’s campaign in the Peloponnesus in 219 BC, Longarus occupied Bylazora, the capital of Paeonia. His success was short-lived though as two years later, in 217 BC Philip V captured Bylazora, blocking the Dardanian access road to Macedonia.

Bylazora, the last Macedonian Palace

The Paeonians occupied the land north of ancient Macedonia and functioned as a buffer zone with the Dardanians on their northern border. Bylazora, in fact, was situated in a commanding position at the natural pass leading from Dardania into Macedonia. 

Philip V of Macedonia, who ruled from 221 until 179 BC, captured Bylazora in 217 BC. By blocking the Dardanian access road to Macedonia, he freed his country from their repeated menacing raids. Philip’s son, Perseus who succeeded his father, sent mercenaries to Bylazora to confront the Romans but he was defeated in 168 BC. He was taken to Rome to be shown in their victory parade together with the incredible wealth of Macedonia. The rich kingdom became a mere Roman province. 

Although Bylazora was the largest city of Paeonia and was mentioned by Livy and Polybius, its location remained a mystery. It was tentatively identified with (Titov) Veles but the results were inconclusive. As so often, the city was discovered by accident in 1994. Road works exposed a buried pool-like building close to modern Sveti Nikole in the Republic of Macedonia some 50 kilometers southeast of Skopje between the Axios and the Strymon Rivers. 

Excavations started in 2008 after the Museum of Sveti Nikole invited the Texas Foundation for Archaeological & Historical Research (TFAHR) to a joint cooperation. 

It was a slow process of searching for clues that started at the top of the hill, the Acropolis. Soon a section of the northern defensive wall was exposed followed by the discovery of a ramp leading up to the Propylon. Next, a Stoa with Doric columns was identified and dated to the days of Philip V based on a similar gallery built by Attalus II in Athens. 

A long wall and successive rooms were unearthed and soon the archaeologists realized they had found the Palace of Philip V and Perseus, the last two kings of Macedonia. 

The first room they explored had all the characteristics of a kitchen, with a fireplace, much pottery, plates, vessels, and amphorae from the 3^rd-2^nd century BC. The walls were covered with a thick layer of plaster with traces of paint. Followed a room with columns and capitals which was named Ante-room since it connected to a more important Tholos. For those who visited the Palace of Aegae in Greece, that space is very recognizable. On the other side of this Tholos lies the Entrance Hall, which in turn is connected to the Vestibule. This large room opened onto the Outer Courtyard via a monumental staircase. 

Keeping the layout of the Palace of Aegae in mind, the archaeologists projected the same series of rooms around the Inner Courtyard. The picture seems to fit perfectly. It also matches the Palace of Dimitrias, situated just south of Volos in Greece. The city was built by Demetrios Poliorketes when he was king of Macedonia, i.e., 294-288 BC. 

Until now and as opposed to Aegae and Pella, I had no knowledge of the Macedonian Palaces of Bylazora or Dimitrias. The destruction of the Palaces of Aegae and Pella by the Romans is well-documented. Dimitrias, however, was entirely dismantled and it is assumed that the same happened in Bylazora although it was never finished. 

Much more pertinent information with clear maps and unique details can be found in this lecture given by Dr. William J. Neidinger of the TFAHR.

[Pictures from TFAHR]

The Bharhut Yavana

Yavana means as much as Greek or could even refer to a foreigner in ancient Indian literature. The word may have a Persian origin and traveled with Cyrus the Great to the Northwestern provinces of India. After the eastern conquests of Alexander the Great, the name Yavana was used more specifically for the Indo-Greeks after approximately 175 BC. 

The Bharhut Yavana refers to the relief of a Greek warrior on a Vedika pillar, discovered near the Stupa of Bharhut in Central India. His role was to guard the entrance to a temple. It is made of reddish-brown sandstone and dated to c. 100-80 BC.

The characteristics of the Yavana warrior are his short curly hair and hair band (the Indians wore turban), his tunic, and boots. His hair band is well-known from coins minted for King Menander. The sheath of his broadsword is decorated with symbols of Buddhism such as a srivasta, also known in Hinduism, and a nandipada, the symbol of a bull’s hoof. The inscription at the top of the panel is in Brahmi script and says "Pillar-gift of the lay brother Mahila." Who this Mahila is remains a mystery.

[Picture from Wikipedia]

Some sources claim that the Bharhut warrior could represent King Menander of Bactria who expanded his kingdom to the Punjab as far as Pataliputra. As a great Indo-Greek King, he ruled from 155 until 130 BC.

The Bharhut Yavana is not unique. The Stupa of Sanchi, commissioned by Asoka the Great in the 3^rd century BC, displays another 18 of these Greek worshipers. They wear very recognizable Greek tunics, capes, and sandals. Also, they play Greek musical instruments like the aulos (double flute) and the carnyx (a Roman brass horn shaped as a capital G). Here too, the men have short curly hair and many wear a hair band as mentioned above. 

[Picture from Wikipedia]

Even in his wildest dreams, Alexander could not have expected this evolution and presence of Greek art for centuries after his death at the other end of his empire.

Did Alexander visit Girsu, Iraq?

The ancient site of Girsu is situated some 25 kilometers west of Lagash in Southern Mesopotamia. Today the Iraqi town is called Tello. 

The only time I came across the name of Girsu was at the Louvre-Lens Museum which proudly displayed the diorite statue of Gudea, Prince of Lagash dated from 2120 BC. 

The Sumerian city currently excavated by archaeologists of the British Museum has yielded a temple from the days of Gudea. The site was abandoned around 1750 BC but tradition still linked the temple to Ningirsu, an ancient Mesopotamian god. It may well be that Alexander was told that Ningirsu was the equivalent of Heracles. Based on his own conviction to be the son of Zeus, that would make him Heracles’ brother. The site would thus honor Zeus and two divine sons, Heracles and Alexander. This speculation would fit the cryptic Greek inscriptions found at Girsu. The text was written in Aramaic and Greek and stated “adad-nadin-ahhe”, meaning “giver of the two brothers”. 

In that context, Alexander could have commissioned the construction of a Greek temple on the same spot where the temple to Ningirsu stood as he intended to honor the ancient gods and his own divine status. 

As he returned to Babylon in 323 BC after his campaign in India, it is not impossible that the king stopped at the city of Girsu which lies only 130 kilometers southeast of Babylon. This theory is confirmed by the discovery on the site of a silver drachm minted around 330 BC and probably left by one of his Macedonians. 

The excavation site yielded other offerings such as terracotta figurines of soldiers and horsemen closely resembling the Companion Cavalry, Alexander’s bodyguard. This would imply that the gifts were left by those close to Alexander or by Alexander himself. 

There may be a lot of speculation involved in the finds at Girsu but if they are confirmed, the construction of this sanctuary would be one of Alexander’s final acts. 

[The Temple of Girsu from ArchaeologyWiki]

The archaeological site of Girsu was first excavated in the 19^th century by the French, who noticed that Greek artifacts were mixed with Sumerian elements. The excavations led by Dr Sebastian Rey in 2022 unearthed walls and records of a huge palace as well as the sanctuary that held the Greek temple. This temple is thought to have been used originally for feasts, animal sacrifices, and processions in honor of the god Ningirsu.

A handful of Alexander coins from Chania

Chania on Crete’s northwestern coast is best known for its beaches and hotels that attract today’s tourists. Its history, however, goes back to the 14^th century BC and is centered on the ongoing excavations of the Minoan Palace of Kydonia which was destroyed by an earthquake one century later. 

[Picture of the hoard,  Greek Reporter,
Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania],

The Old Town of Chania proper has yielded a cache of 37 rare coins, including eleven gold staters of Alexander. The hoard together with two coins of Kydonia, was hidden in a space behind the wall of the acropolis of Kydonia probably by a mercenary between 300 and 280 BC. That is quite a find considering one gold stater equaled a mercenary month's salary. 

It has been established that the coins were mostly minted after Alexander’s death in the name of Philip Arrhidaeus, Seleucos or Lysimachos in different locations such as Amphipolis, Abydos, Lampsacus, etc. 

[Picture of the two-drachms of Cyrene, Greek Reporter,

Credit: Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania]

The hoard also included 15 silver staters minted in Olympia during the Olympic Games at some time in the 4^th century BC. Also one Corinthian stater of the Palace of Acarnania, a colony on the Ionian Sea; and one stater of Praisos (on the peninsula of Sitia at the eastern end of Crete). Further one two-drachms of Cyrene (North Africa), two drachms of Phaistos (62 km south of Heracleion), one drachma of Hyrtakina (in the northwest of Crete), and two pseudo-hemi-drachms of the Aegina type found in Kydonia. Last but not least, there are two early versions from Aegina showing the sea and land turtles.

Restoration or reconstruction?

There is a thin line between the restoration of an object or a building and its reconstruction. A good restorer will preserve the authenticity of the piece like a statue, while strengthening and improving its overall condition. When it comes to monuments, the restoration is meant to improve the visual impression and to help the onlooker imagine how it looked in its days of glory. A reconstruction, however, numbs our imagination and produces a modern rendition instead of recreating what once was. 

An example of excellent restoration is, for instance, the Philippeon in Olympia, Greece. When I first visited the site in the early 1970s, only a few stone blocks outlined the contour of the monument; there was not much to get excited about. When I returned more recently, I was much impressed by the skillful restoration of the Philippeon showing three steps on which three full-size Ionic columns had been reassembled. It does not seem like much but it was enough to complete my mental picture of Philip’s monument. 

Meanwhile, it has become fashionable to create an environment that will attract tourists, meaning to cash in on the money. Plans to that effect have been suggested, for instance, to clear the swamp occupying the old harbor of Ephesos and turn it into a place where tourists can anchor their yachts. A ridiculous idea because it does not help recreating the aspect of the ancient harbor and it truly destroys any possible picture from antiquity. 

There also is the case of the Monument of Opramoas, a wealthy citizen of Rhodiapolis, Turkey. This benefactor contributed largely to the reconstruction of the city that was hit by the severe earthquake of 141 AD. The walls of a monument built in his honor were covered with an inscription – the longest in Lycia - to commemorate his deeds. Archaeologists carefully retrieved these stones and piled them up next to the theater, where I discovered them in 2008.

The plan was to sort them out to reproduce the original inscriptions. Well, the project has materialized but the gaps of the missing stone blocks have been amply filled with bright white marble blocks. The shiny out-of-place square monument draws the visitor's attention away from the theater and other noteworthy monuments. A bad reconstruction. 

[The reconstructed Opramoas Monument]

Very recently the Palace of Aegae (modern Vergina) reopened to the public after being closed since 2007. I agree that it was in dire need to be cleaned and restored. The ruins were covered with moss and dirt after years of neglect and did close to nothing to reflect the wealth and glory of Macedonia’s heyday.

When I saw the first pictures of the Palace as it is presented to us today, my heart sank. The result is a reconstruction. Archaeologists reused the bits of broken columns they found on the spot but the new white marble column drums dwarf the original elements. As they stand mostly around the central Peristyle, they are taking my attention away from the general layout and the precious mosaic floors. The most beautiful mosaic with the Rape of Europa next to the entrance, which was hitherto hidden underneath a tarp, is now exposed to full view. Thank you.

[Picture of Aegae's Palace from The Archaeologist]

The difference between restoration and reconstruction is very thin, I agree. The Palace of Aegae, the scene of so much history, was hardly visited. Not everybody is blessed with the ability to mentally rebuild the missing walls, columns, corridors, and rooms. The present reconstruction will draw crowds of tourists who do not have to make that effort and simply accept what is there. 

[Picture from Smithsonianmag]

This is especially true for the Parthenon on Athens' Acropolis. To see a temple as it would have looked on the day it was built is a major incentive for those who lack imagination or who are too lazy to make the effort. The excuse in Athens is that the Parthenon had been badly restored in the 1930s. The cement parts had to be replaced with marble and the rusted metal clamps had to make way for titanium ones. In the long run, this kind of repair does pay off. Besides, we have much more advanced techniques and deeper insight into the construction of a Classical temple than 150 years ago. Still, it remains debatable whether the transformation of the Parthenon is to be seen as a restoration or a reconstruction.

The city of Alexandria Troas or Alexandria of the Troad

The name of Alexandria Troas has a most confusing name since it is generally thought that the city was founded by Alexander the Great, more so because of the king’s admiration for The Iliad in which Troy played such an important role. Nothing is further remote from the truth. 

[Votif relief of Psyche on a dromedary from Alexandria Troas, 

2nd century BC, Louvre Museum]

According to Strabo the town of Sigeia was founded on this spot around 306 BC by Antigonus-Monophthalmus. The name of Alexandria Troas was given to the city by Lysimachos in 301 BC, as a generous referral to Alexander. It was a double harbor in northwestern Asia Minor and the richest of the Troad and occupied a strategic position near the entrance of the Hellespont. It silted up over the centuries. 

In 188 BC, the Romans declared it a free and autonomous city that counted about 100,000 inhabitants. Emperor Augustus settled a colony of soldiers within its walls and renamed it Colonnia Alexandria Augusta Troas, in short Troas. He lavishly embellished the city, as did the emperors Trajan and Hadrian a century later. 

Herodus Atticus, best known for his theater at the foot of the Acropolis in Athens, was appointed by Hadrian as prefect of the free cities of Asia in 125 AD, including Alexandria Troas. He may have built the aqueduct that carried water from Mount Ida, although other sources attribute the construction to Trajan. 

Alexandria Troas was surrounded by a 10-kilometer-long city wall, including fortified towers placed at regular intervals. Some parts are still visible today together with remains of the Roman Baths and the Gymnasium, a Necropolis, a Nymphaeum, the Odeon, the Theater, and a recently discovered Stadium dating approximately from 100 BC. 

The Baths and the Gymnasium were built by Herodus Atticus in 135 AD. They were surrounded by vaulted corridors with marble walls and water was delivered thanks to the aqueducts on the northeast side of town. The large Baths measured an impressive 123 x 84 meters. Most of the building remained intact until it was destroyed by the severe earthquake in the winter of 1809-1810. The whole project was greatly supported by Emperor Hadrian as revealed in an inscription found in Hadrian’s Gymnasium in Athens mentioning the emperor as the sponsor of the city in 132 AD. Three more inscriptions unearthed at Alexandria Troas during excavations in 2006 confirm the emperor’s interest and the appreciation of the citizens. 

The Hellenistic theater stood at the highest point of the city treating the spectators to a sweeping view over the city and the Aegean Sea with the island Bozcaada.

The Periplus of the Euxine Sea by Arrian – Part 3

In this last part of the Periplus, Arrian takes us from Dioscuras/Sebastopolis to Byzantium. 

He starts his story where he left off at the conclusion of part 1, i.e., in Sebastopolis (see: Tour of Colchis: From Trapezus to Sebastopolis). This section, the Cimmerian Bosporus, was not controlled directly by Rome but by a so-called client king. In Hadrian’s day, that was Cotys II, in full Tiberius Julius Cotys, who ruled from 123/4 AD until he died in 131/2 AD. His appointment was made for life and his successor needed to be officially recognized by Rome. 

At the news of his death, Arrian decided that Hadrian would be interested in having the latest information about the Bosporan Kingdom since it supplied a great deal of wheat, clothing, wine, and slaves. His territory also was an important buffer zone with the warlike Alans living to the north. 

Arrian sailed along the mountainous coastline below the Caucasus to Pityus, some 65 kilometers away. These lands were occupied by the Zilchi ruled by a certain Stachemphax, also recognized as a king by Hadrian. Follows a list of cities, harbors, and rivers including the distances between them, from Crimea to the mouth of the Danube River. More familiar are the Greek cities on the south coast of Crimea, such as Panticapaeum (Kerch), Theodosia, Cercinitis, and Chersonesus (Kherson). Panticapaeum which lies only 11 kilometers from the Tanais River (modern Don River) and flows into Maeotis Lake (Sea of Azov) was seen as the place where Europe ended and Asia started. 

Sailing further west, Arrian stops at the Greek city of Olbia at the mouth of today’s Dnieper River. Next, he heads for the harbor of Odessos, a trading post founded by the Greeks from Istria. From here, he continues to the wide delta of the Ister River (Danube) where he reaches the Island of Achilles or Leuke (possibly Snake Island in Ukraine). Legend has it that Thetis gave it to her son. The island was known for its Temple of Achilles which held a wooden statue of the hero, as well as Greek and Latin inscriptions in honor of Achilles and his dear Patroclus. Arrian speaks of many offerings that were made, including sacrifices of animals. Those who sail by the island may “see” Achilles in their dreams or hallucinations. 

Proceeding further down the coast of the Black Sea, Arrian arrives at Tomis, a colony founded by the Greeks where Emperor Augustus banished the poet Ovid. The next port was Callatis, established by the Carians, followed by Odessos (another harbor by that name) where he entered Thracia. 

Passing the eastern end of the Haemus Mountains (in central Bulgaria), Arrian reaches Miletus’ colony of Apollonia which once held a colossal statue of the god Apollo. From here, he sailed to the not-so-good harbor of Salmydessus (roughly 150 km east of Hadrianopolis, modern Edirne) where Xenophon helped Seuthes II to become King of Thracia. 

By now, Arrian has landed at the Thracian side of the Bosporus. This area is reputed for the Cyanean Islands or Symplegades (also Clashing Rocks), a pair of rocks that clash together when a ship sails through. In Greek mythology, the rocks were defeated by Jason on his way to Colchis on board his ship, the Argo. 

Byzantium is Arrian’s final destination. He concludes by mentioning the local Temple of Zeus Ourios (who grants favorable winds) where Jason and the Argonauts erected an altar to the Twelve Olympian Gods on their return from Colchis. 

In our modern days of traveling by plane and high-speed trains, it is hard to imagine the pace in antiquity when people and armies moved on foot. Ships and barges were a comfortable alternative although winds and currents were not always reliable. Travelers could never predict the duration of a trip or the time of arrival, but in those days time was not so much of the essence as it is today. 

Though Arrian wrote his Periplus 130-131 AD, we don’t know how many months or weeks he actually was at sea. Considering that the circumference of the Black Sea is over 4,000 kilometers, it may be safe to speculate he spent most of those two years “on the road”. Quite an achievement!

[For the locations, please consult this map]

More of What Alexander did for us

Approximately ten years ago, I posted a blog about citrus fruit as introduced by Alexander’s Macedonians from India (see: What Alexander did for us). 

This certainly was not an isolated case if we look at the work of Theophrastus, a contemporary of Aristotle and Alexander (see: Theophrastus, philosopher and botanist). He studied plants that came from Persia, Afghanistan, and the Indus Valley. He introduced the Greeks to mangos, cardoons (or artichoke thistle), jujubes (also called Chinese dates), pistachios, and tamarind. Newly imported plants were cinnamon, banyan (a fig typically from India), as well as frankincense and myrrh. 

One day during his invasion of India in 327 BC, Alexander had bananas for dessert and he enjoyed the fruit so much that he wanted to share it. Eventually, bananas traveled to the Middle East, where they earned their Arabic name of banan, meaning finger. 

Arrian revealed that in 325 BC, Nearchus had found sugarcane. He described it as “a reed that brings forth honey without the help of bees”. In antiquity, sugarcane was basically used as a medicine by Greek and Roman physicians, as documented by Pliny the Elder in the 1^st century AD. 

Rice was another food the king introduced into Macedonia after his campaign in Central Asia, and it appears that the well-known dish of Plov or Pilaf spread from Macedonia, throughout Greece and the Balkans (see: The origins of rice in ancient Macedonia). 

Alexander also introduced Europe to the cotton from India. It is said that the Macedonians started wearing cotton clothes which were more appropriate for the Indian climate. 

The colorful floor mosaic of a parakeet from Palace V in Pergamon now on display at the Museum of Pergamon in Berlin (see: The beauty of Alexandrine mosaics) is a rare example of the wide collection of animals and plants Alexander sent to Aristotle from the regions he conquered. The Alexandrine Parakeet was native to South Asia and Southeast Asia. 

As Alexander traveled to modern-day countries such as Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, and India, he shared his serious interest in local cultures and habits with the rest of the world.